费力好大劲才搞到的 地理信息系统 gis 英语论文

562M.K.McCall/HabitatInternational27(2003)549–573

foundationgeo-datasets,includingtopodata,infrastructure,andcensusdata.Spatialdataarebeingsoldofftothehighestbiddertoexploitthevalue-addedofGIS,fuelledbythegrowingpowersoftheWTOandWorldIntellectualPropertyOrganisation(WIPO).

Atthelocallevel,issuesofownershipofintellectualpropertyrightsalsoappearinrelationtoprivacyoflandparcelinformation(e.g.inthehighresolutionPPGISSlaithwaitecase,Carveretal.,1999).

Averystrongpositiononownership,andthereforeonlimitingaccess,of‘secret’,sacred,ISKistakenbyHarmsworth(1997)inrelationtoMaoripeoples.Theseprotectionistviewstowardsindigenousculture,foundalsointheUS(e.g.Madsen,1995),couldhoweverbeinterpretedalsoasprotectingtheprivilegesofanelitewhothriveontherestrictedknowledgeofresourcelocationsoruses,privyonlytothemselves.Thecommonestgrouptoloseoutarewomen,whenmen’ssecurecontrolofresourceknowledgeandtheconsequentexclusionofwomenbecomelegitimisedby‘communitytraditions’.Inurbansettings,thecon dentiality/secrecyofISKisnotonlyrelatedtoillegalactivities,althoughitwouldincludesuchasdrugdealinglocations.Buttherearenumerous‘traditional’activitieswhichfallundervaryinglabelsofanti-socialorimmorality,becausetheyarenotsanctionedbythemajoritysociety.

Examplesof,whataretovaryingdegrees,protectedorcon dentialruralandurbanISKdatalayers:

*

*

*

*

*Traditionalhunting, shing,grazing,medicinalherbscollection;areasusedbyurbangroupsforlivelihoodsorlife-styleactivities.‘Traditional’,vulgaractivities(e.g.hunting,dragracing,raves,streetbetting,prostitution,dog ghting),whicharecurrentlyanti-socialorinappropriate.Customaryboundariesandsubdivisionsofcultureareas—tribes,neighbourhoods,customaryproperty,eruvim,streetgangs,maleandfemale,gayandstraightspaces,personalspace.Historicplaces,neighbourhoods,Holysites,burialgrounds,ceremonialareas,buriedculturalobjects.Indigenoussacredplacenames,cosmologicallocations,sacredpathways,songlines.

Arelatedquestioniswhetherownershipofknowledgeincludestherighttopreventothersfromusingit.AmongstFirstNationsinNorthAmericaandinAotearoatherearelegal–politicalmovestowardsa‘communalrightofprivacy’.Thismeanscustomaryleadershiptakingresponsibilityfordataprotection,andthuscontrolovercon dentialGISdatalayers.

Moreover,therightsofindigenouspeoplescanbeassertedtoincludefreedomfrom‘wantonexploitation’oftheirnaturalresourcedatafromaerialphotographyorRSplatforms.Inthiscontext,Madsen(1995)quotesfromaUSlegalopinion,(1928)whenJusticeBrandeis‘‘calledtherighttobeletalone‘themostcomprehensiveofrightsandtherightmostcherishedbycivilizedmen’’’.ThereissimilarconcernoverthesurveillanceandpolicingcapabilitiesofGISusedincombinationwithhi-techspatialdatacollection(e.g.Harrisetal.,1995;Pickles,1995).

LandcareResearchinNewZealandoffersthreeprotectionoptionsforsensitive,con dentiallayers:recordingtheinformationasconcealed leslinkedtoaGISandneedingapermission;recordingtheinformationasanoverlay,e.g.agridatcrudescale,whichpreventsspeci csite