法律英语-何家弘(10)

the nation. They were also conscious that the process of change should not be facile, permitting illconceived and hastily passed amendments. By the same token, they wanted to assure that a minority could not block action desired by most of the people.

宪法的起草者非常清楚，如果宪法要能够持久并与国家的发展保持同步，有时就需要修改。他们还意识到修改宪法的程序不能太容易，从而可能产生构想拙劣的和草率通过的修正案。由于同样的原因，他们希望确保少数人不能够阻止大多数人所希望的（修宪）行为。

Their solution was to devise a dual process by which the Constitution could be changed. The Congress, by a twothirds vote in each house, may initiate an amendment. Or the legislatures of twothirds of the states may ask Congress to call a national convention to discuss and draft amendments. In either case, amendments must have the approval of threefourths of the states before they enter into force.

他们的解决办法是设计一种修改宪法的双轨程序。国会两院三分之二多数票可以提出修宪动议。而三分之二的州立法机关也可以要求国会召开修宪大会讨论和起草修正案。在这两种情况下，修正案都必须得到四分之三的州的批准才能生效。

Aside from the direct process of changing the Constitution itself, the effect of its provisions may be changed by judicial interpretation. Early in the history of the republic, in the landmark case of Marbury vs. Madison,the Supreme Court established the doctrine of judicial review, which is the power of the Court to interpret acts of Congress and decide their constitutionality. The doctrine also embraces the power of the Court to explain the meaning of various sections of the Constitution as they apply to changing legal, political, economic and social conditions. Over the years, a series of Court decisions, on issues ranging from governmental regulation of radio and television to the rights of the accused in criminal cases, has had the effect of altering the thrust of constitutional law, with no substantive change in the Constitution itself.

除了宪法本身的直接修改程序之外，宪法条款的效力也可以通过司法解释而被改变。在共和国历史的早期，在具有里程碑意义的马伯里诉麦迪逊案中，最高法院确立了司法审查（权）原则。这种司法审查权是法院对于国会的法案进行解释并确定其合宪性的权力。多年以来，法院在从政府对无线电和电视的管制到刑事案件中被告的权利等问题上的一系列裁决，都具有改变宪法指向的效果，但并未有宪法本身的实质性变化。

Congressional legislation, passed to implement provisions of the basic law, or to adapt it to changing conditions, also broadens and, in subtle ways, changes the meaning of the Constitution. Up to a point, the rules and regulations of the myriad agencies of the federal government may have a similar effect. The acid test in both cases is whether, in the opinion of the courts, such legislation and rules are in conformity with the intent and purposes of the Constitution itself.

国会关于实施这部基本法或者为了使其适应变化的情况而通过的立法也以某些微妙的方式改变着宪法的含义。大量的联邦政府行政机关的规则和规章也在某些方面具有类似的效果。按照法院的意见，在这两种情况下，严格的检验标准就是这种立法和规章是否符合宪法本身的意图和目的。

Lesson Six: Administrative Law 行政法

Background背景

美国的法学家认为，行政法是管理政府行政活动的部门法。它规定行政机关可以行使的权力，确定行使这些权利的原则，以及对受到行政行为侵害的人给予法律上的补救。行政法一般被认为是属于公法的范畴，但是在美国，公法和私法之间的区别不像在大陆法系国家中那么严格，因此，美国的行政法案件也由受理私法案件的普通法院审判。

行政法包括实体法和程序法(Procedural Law)的内容。美国行政法研究的主要对象是后者。就联邦一级而言，美国的行政程序法可以追溯至1789年的联邦宪法修正案，但是在实质意义上的行政程序法则始于1887年为处理铁路工业问题而成立的州际商业委员会。该委员会是美国联邦行政部门中最早的独立规制机构(Independent Regulatory Agency)。20世纪30年代，在罗斯福总统推行的"新政"(the New Deal) 时期，各种联邦行政机关如雨后春笋般建立，美国的行政程序法也得到长足的发展。

美国的行政法是由宪法、法律、判例、行政规章等组成的。其中，最为重要的是联邦宪法第五修正案中的正当程序(Due Process)条款和1946年的联邦行政程序法(Federal Administrative Procedure Act)。诚然，判例法的作用亦十分重要。

General statutory measures that purport to deal with "administrative law" define the scope of their application in terms of three concerns: the procedures employed by "agencies" in effecting "agency action"; judicial (and, to a lesser extent, political) review of those actions; and special procedures relating to the handling and release of information in the governments possession. Neither a court nor a legislature nor an elected chief executive can be an "agency" under these statutes, although the relationship of courts, legislatures and chief executives with agencies is very much a matter of administrative law concern. Otherwise the concept includes virtually every administrative unit exercising public authority. "Agency action" is also embracively defined. While the provisions of administrative procedure legislation general …… 此处隐藏：3560字，全部文档内容请下载后查看。喜欢就下载吧 ……