得到

语音与另一个语音相似，从而使两个音素变得相似。 重要的规则： I. 元音后紧跟一个鼻音时，该元音要鼻音话。如bean/

green 中的[i:]音。

II. 在一个单词中，鼻音[n]所处的发音部位和紧随其

后的辅音的发音部位变得一样。如correct –incorrect。

III. 语音同化规则也体现在有关单词的拼写中。如

possible的否定形式是impossible，是因为[n]音同化成了[m]音。

C) deletion rules 省略规则

The rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.

省略规则告诉我们什么时候一个语音尽管在拼写中存在，但在发音中却省略了。 重要的规则： I. 如[g]音出现在位于词尾的一个鼻辅音前时要省

略。如sign中的[g]音不发音。而在加了后缀的signature中，[g]却要发音的。

10. Suprasegmental features- stress, tone, intonation

超切分特征：重音、声调和语调

Distinctive features can also be found running over a

sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone.

区别性特征也可以在由两个或多个音位切分成分所组成的系列中体现出来。出现在切分层面之上的音系特征叫做超切分特征。它们时音节、单词和句子等语言单位的音系特征。主要的超切分特征包括重音、音调和语调。 A) Stress 重音 重要的规则： I. 一个单词如果既可以作名词，又可以作动词，则

名词重音在第一个音节上，相应的动词重音则在第二个音节上。如import。

II. 英语复合词的重音常在第一个成分上，第二个成

分是次重音。如hotdog。

B) Tone 声调

英语不是声调语言，这里不作研究。 C) Intonation 语调

When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.

当音高、重音和音长依附于一个句子而不是单个单词时，这些音素合起来叫做语调。

English has four basic types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, and the rise-fall tone. The most frequently used are the first three.

英语中有四种基本语调：降调、升调、降升调、升降调。最常用的是前三种。

Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学

Definition定义

Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.

形态学是语法的一个分支，研究词的内部结构和构词规则。

Morphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter is the study of word formation.

形态学可分为两个分支科学：屈折形态学和词汇或派生形态学。前者研究词的屈折变化，后者研究词的构成。

1. Morpheme 语素

The smallest meaningful unit of language语言最小的意义单位。

The meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning.

语素表达的意义有两种：词汇意义和语法意义。

2. Types of morphemes 语素的分类

a) Free morphemes 自由语素

Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.

自由语素是独立的意义单位，能够独自自由使用，当然也可以和其它语素结合使用。 b) Bound morphemes 黏着语素

Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.

黏着语素是那些不能单独使用，而必须和其它语素－自由语素或黏着语素－结合在一起以形成一个单词的语素。

3. Types of bound morphemes 黏着语素的分类

Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes 词根和词缀。

A root is often seen as part of word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.

词根被看作是词的一部分，它有清楚、明确的意思，但不能单独存在，它必须和另一个词根或词缀组合构成单词。

Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational 屈折词缀和派生词缀

Inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case. The English inflectional affixes include: