得到

Tom has been smoking. Tom, smoke!

Does Tom smoke?

这是同一语义述谓TOM(SMOKE)在语法上的多种体现。 According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we classify the predications into two-place predication (containing two arguments), one-place predication (containing one argument), and no-place predication (containing no argument).

根据一个述谓中所包含的论元的数目，我们把述谓结构分为两位述谓结构（包含两个论元）、单位述谓结构（包含一个论元）和零位述谓结构（没有论元） 示例：

The building is next to the library. (Two-place predication) He is snoring. (One-place predication) It is late. (No-place predication)

Chapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学

1. What is pragmatics?

什么是语用学？

Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. It places the study of meaning in the context in which language is used.

语用学研究的是说某种语言的人怎样用句子去实现成功的交际。

由于交际的过程从本质来说是在一定的语境中表达意义的过程，因而语用学的本质是一种意义研究。它是一种将语言置于使用的语境中去的意义研究。

2. Pragmatics and semantics 语用学和语义学

Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning, but they are different. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning, the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.

语用学和语义学都是对意义的语言学研究，但两者是不同的。它们的本质区别在于研究意义时是否考虑了语言使用的语境。没有考虑到语境进行的研究就没有超出传统语义学的研究范围；相反，考虑到语境进行的研究就属于语用学的研究范围。

3. Context 语境

Context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.

语境是语言的语用研究中不可缺少的概念。它一般被理解为说话者和听话者所共有的知识。

The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic

communication is taking place.

共有的知识包括他们所使用的语言方面的知识和双方对世界的认识，包括对世界的总的认识和对正在进行的语言交际所处的环境的具体认识。

4. Sentence meaning and utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义

The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and de-contextualized, while utterance meaning is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.

句子的意义是抽象的，非语境化的，而话语的意义是具体的，受语境制约的。话语意义基于句子意义；它是一个句子的抽象意义在特定语境中的具体体现，或简而言之，在一个语境中的具体化。

5. Speech act theory 言语行为理论

Speech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated with the British

philosopher John Austin in the late 50 s of the 20th

century. 言语行为理论是语言语用研究中的一个重要理论。它最初是由英国哲学家约翰.奥斯汀在20世纪50年代提出的。

According to speech act theory, we are performing actions when we are speaking.

根据言语行为理论，我们说话的同时是在实施某种行为。

According to speech act theory, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.

根据言语行为理论，说话者说话时可能同时实施三种行为：言内行为，言外行为和言后行为。

a) A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases,

clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax lexicon and phonology.

言内行为是说出词、短语和分句的行为， 它是通过句法、词汇和音位来表达字面意义的行为。

b) An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker s

intention; it is the act performed in saying something. 言外行为是表达说话者的意图的行为，它是在说某些话时所实施的行为。

c) A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting

from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.

言后行为是通过某些话所实施的行为，或讲某些话所导致的行为，它是话语所产生的后果或所引起的变化，它是通过讲某些话所完成的行为。

American philosopher-linguist John Searle classified illocutionary acts into five general types. Each type has a common, general purpose.

美国的哲学语言学家约翰.舍尔把言外行为分为五类，每一类行为都有一个共同的、普遍的目的。这五大类是：