two terms: the influencing agent, and the persons influenced. Without followers there can be no leader.” (Katz and Kahn, 1966) In the 1960’s “humanists” focused attentions to managerial styles, criticizing an autocratic, task-oriented style, and advocating participative, people-oriented style. More recently, empirical social

psychologists have been arguing for situational or contingency theories of leadership effectiveness. Mintzberg feels that excessive attention was placed on two basic styles – autocratic and participative, and a lack of understanding of the interpersonal behaviors has slowed progress in determining factors that produce successful leaders. Humanist theorists include: McGregor (1960), Likert (1961). Contingency theorist include: Fiedler (1966), Campbell (et al, 1970). Leader Power School

Melville Dalton (1959) conducted a famous study of middle managers, and concluded informal social forces of bureaucracy tend to dominate individual action.

Richard Neustadt’s (1960) book “Presidential Power: The Politics of Leadership” found that effective power of the President is dependent on the style of the man and how he approaches his job.

Darwin Cartwright (1965) in “The Handbook of Organizations” cites a 5-part scheme of power by French and Raven:

1) Reward; 2) Coercive; 3) Referent; 4) Legitimate; 5) Expert Leader Behavior School

George Homans (1950) concluded from William F. Whyte’s study of street gangs that the leader is the best informed of the group, and that there is a hierarchy of leader authority.

Some Distinguishing Characteristics of Managerial Work These characteristics are based on observations and recorded activities by managers in a daily log.

1) Pace and quantity of work is much work at an unrelenting pace. A major reason that managers adopt this pace and workload is because of: a) their job is open-ended, b) the manager is responsible for the success of the organization, c) there are no tangible mileposts where work is finished and managers are perpetually preoccupied.