purely construction design concept can result in either a reduction in purely construction costs or more architecture for the same cost. Thus, the degree of success possible depends on knowledge, cleverness, and insightful collaboration of the designers and contractors.

The above discussion is only meant to give the reader an overall perspective on total

construction costs. The following sections will now furnish the means for estimating the cost of structure alone. Two alternative means will be provided for making an approximate structural cost estimate: one on a square foot of building basis, and another on volumes of structural materials used. Such costs can then be used to get a rough idea of total cost by referring to the “standards” for efficient design given above. At best, this will be a crude measure, but it is hoped that the reader will find that it makes him somewhat familiar with the type of real economic problems that responsible designers must deal with. At the least, this capability will be useful in comparing alternative systems for the purpose of determining their relative cost efficiency.

3. Square-foot Estimating

As before, it is possible to empirically determine a “standard” per-square-foot cost

factor based on the average of costs for similar construction at a given place and time. more-or-less efficient designs are possible, depending on the ability of the designer and contractor to use materials and labor efficiently, and vary from the average.

The range of square-foot costs for “normal” structural systems is ﹩10 to ﹩16 psf.

For example, typical office buildings average between ﹩12 and ﹩16 psf, and apartment-type structures range from ﹩10 to ﹩14.In each case, the lower part of the range refers to short spans and low buildings, whereas the upper portion refers to longer spans and moderately tall buildings.

Ordinary industrial structures are simple and normally produce square-foot costs ranging from ﹩10 to ﹩14,as with the more typical apartment building. Although the spans for industrial structures are generally longer than those for apartment buildings, and the loads heavier, they commonly have fewer complexities as well as fewer interior walls, partitions, ceiling requirements, and they are not tall. In other words, simplicity of design and erection can offset the additional cost for longer span lengths and heavier