quota system,womenhold 45 percent of positions in the swedish parliament.they have enjoyed theprotection of government agencies with titles like the Ministry of Integrationand Gender Equality and the Secretariat of Gender Research.So why are Americanwomen so far ahead of their Swedish counterparts in breaking through the glassceiling?

[B]in a 2012 report,the World EconomicForum found that when it comes to closing the gender gap in"econmicparticipation and opportunity,"the United States is ahead of not onlySweden but also Finland,Denmark,the Netherlands,Iceland,Germany,and the UnitedKingdom.Sweden's rank in the report can largely be explained by its politicalquota system.Though the United States has fewer women in the workorce(68percent compared to Sweden's 77 percent).American women who choose to beemployed are far more likely to work full-time and to hold high-level jobs asmanangers or professionals.They also own more businesses,lauch more start-ups(新创办的企业),and more often work in traditionally malefields.As for breaking through the glass ceiling in business,American women arewell in the lead.

[C]what explains the Americanadvantage?How can it be that societies like Sweden,where gender equality isvigorously pusued and engorced,have fewer femalemanagers,executives,professionals,and business owners than eh laissez-faire(自由放任的)united states?A new study by clrnelleconomists Francine Blau and Lawrence Kahn gives an explanation.

[D]Generous parental leavepolicies and readily available part-time options have unintendedconsequences:instead of strengthening women's attachment to the workplace,theyappear to weaken it.In addition to a 16-month leave,a swedish parent has theright to work six hours a day (for a reduced salary)until his or her child iseight years old.Mothers are far more likely than fathers to take advantage ofthis law,But extended leaves and part-time employment are known to be harmfulto careers—for both genders. And with women a second factor comes intoplay:most seem to enjoy the flexible-time arrangement(once known as the “mommytrack”)and never find their way back tofull-time or high-level employment.In sum:generous family-friendly policies dokeep more women in the labor market,but they also tend to diminisb theircareers.

[E] According to Blau andKahn,Swedish-style paternal(父亲的)leavepolicies and flexibletime arrangements pose a second threat to woman’s progress:they make employers cautious about hiring woman forfull-time positions at all.Offering ajob to a man is the safer bet.He is farless likely to take a year of parental leave and