土木工程抗侧向荷载的结构体系毕业论文中英文资料对照外文翻译文献综述

中英文资料对照外文翻译文献综述

附录：抗侧向荷载的结构体系

常用的结构体系

若已测出荷载量达数千万磅重，那么在高层建筑设计中就没有多少可以进行极其复杂的构思余地了。确实，较好的高层建筑普遍具有构思简单、表现明晰的特点。

这并不是说没有进行宏观构思的余地。实际上，正是因为有了这种宏观的构思，新奇的高层建筑体系才得以发展，可能更重要的是：几年以前才出现的一些新概念在今天的技术中已经变得平常了。

如果忽略一些与建筑材料密切相关的概念不谈，高层建筑里最为常用的结构体系便可分为如下几类：

抗弯矩框架。

支撑框架，包括偏心支撑框架。

剪力墙，包括钢板剪力墙。

筒中框架。

筒中筒结构。

核心交互结构。

框格体系或束筒体系。

特别是由于最近趋向于更复杂的建筑形式，同时也需要增加刚度以抵抗几力和地震力，大多数高层建筑都具有由框架、支撑构架、剪力墙和相关体系相结合而构成的体系。而且，就较高的建筑物而言，大多数都是由交互式构件组成三维陈列。

将这些构件结合起来的方法正是高层建筑设计方法的本质。其结合方式需要在考虑环境、功能和费用后再发展，以便提供促使建筑发展达到新高度的有效结构。这并不是说富于想象力的结构设计就能够创造出伟大建筑。正相反，有许多例优美的建筑仅得到结构工程师适当的支持就被创造出来了，然而，如果没有天赋甚厚的建筑师的创造力的指导，那么，得以发展的就只能是好的结构，并非是伟大的建筑。无论如何，要想创造出高层建筑真正非凡的设计，两者都需要最好的。

虽然在文献中通常可以见到有关这七种体系的全面性讨论，但是在这里还值得进一步讨论。设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论。设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论中。

抗弯矩框架

抗弯矩框架也许是低，中高度的建筑中常用的体系，它具有线性水平构件和垂直构件在接头处基本刚接之特点。这种框架用作独立的体系，或者和其他体系结合起来使用，以

土木工程抗侧向荷载的结构体系毕业论文中英文资料对照外文翻译文献综述

便提供所需要水平荷载抵抗力。对于较高的高层建筑，可能会发现该本系不宜作为独立体系，这是因为在侧向力的作用下难以调动足够的刚度。

我们可以利用 STRESS，STRUDL 或者其他大量合适的计算机程序进行结构分析。所谓的门架法分析或悬臂法分析在当今的技术中无一席之地，由于柱梁节点固有柔性，并且由于初步设计应该力求突出体系的弱点，所以在初析中使用框架的中心距尺寸设计是司空惯的。

当然，在设计的后期阶段，实际地评价结点的变形很有必要。

支撑框架

支撑框架实际上刚度比抗弯矩框架强，在高层建筑中也得到更广泛的应用。这种体系以其结点处铰接或则接的线性水平构件、垂直构件和斜撑构件而具特色，它通常与其他体系共同用于较高的建筑，并且作为一种独立的体系用在低、中高度的建筑中。尤其引人关注的是，在强震区使用偏心支撑框架。

此外，可以利用STRESS，STRUDL，或一系列二维或三维计算机分析程序中的任何一种进行结构分析。另外，初步分析中常用中心距尺寸。

剪力墙

剪力墙在加强结构体系刚性的发展过程中又前进了一步。该体系的特点是具有相当薄的，通常是（而不总是）混凝土的构件，这种构件既可提供结构强度，又可提供建筑物功能上的分隔。

在高层建筑中，剪力墙体系趋向于具有相对大的高宽经，即与宽度相比，其高度偏大。 由于基础体系缺少应力，任何一种结构构件抗倾覆弯矩的能力都受到体系的宽度和构件承受的重力荷载的限制。由于剪力墙宽度狭狭窄受限，所以需要以某种方式加以扩大，以便提从所需的抗倾覆能力。在窗户需要量小的建筑物外墙中明显地使用了这种确有所需要宽度的体系。

钢结构剪力墙通常由混凝土覆盖层来加强以抵抗失稳，这在剪切荷载大的地方已得到应用。这种体系实际上比钢支撑经济，对于使剪切荷载由位于地面正上方区域内比较高的楼层向下移特别有效。这种体系还具有高延性之优点，这种特性在强震区特别重要。由于这些墙内必然出同一些大孔，使得剪力墙体系分析变得错综复杂。可以通过桁架模似法、有限元法，或者通过利用为考虑剪力墙的交互作用或扭转功能设计的专门计处机程序进行初步分析。

框架或支撑式筒体结构：

框架或支撑式筒体最先应用于 IBM 公司在 Pittsburgh 的一幢办公楼，随后立即被应用于纽约双子座的 110 层世界贸易中心摩天大楼和其他的建筑中。这种系统有以下几个显著的特征：三维结构、支撑式结构、或由剪力墙形成的一个性质上差不多是圆柱体的闭合曲面，但又有任意的平面构成。由于这些抵抗侧向荷载的柱子差不多都被设置在整个系统的中心，所以整体的惯性得到提高，刚度也是很大的。在可能的情况下，通过三维概念的应用、二维的类比，我们可以进行筒体结构的分析。不管应用那种方法，都必须考

土木工程抗侧向荷载的结构体系毕业论文中英文资料对照外文翻译文献综述

虑剪力滞后的影响。这种最先在航天器结构中研究的剪力滞后出现后，对筒体结构的刚度是一个很大的限制。这种观念已经影响了筒体结构在 60 层以上建筑中的应用。设计者已经开发出了很多的技术，用以减小剪力滞后的影响，这其中最有名的是桁架的应用。框架或支撑式筒体在 40 层或稍高的建筑中找到了自己的用武之地。除了一些美观的考虑外，桁架几乎很少涉及与外墙联系的每个建筑功能，而悬索一般设置在机械的地板上，这就令机械体系设计师们很不赞成。但是作为一个性价比较好的结构体系，桁架能充分发挥它的性能，所以它会得到设计师们持续的支持。由于其最佳位置正取决于所提供的桁架的数量，因此很多研究已经试图完善这些构件的位置。实验表明：由于这种结构体系的经济性并不十分受桁架位置的影响，所以这些桁架的位置主要取决于机械系统的完善，审美的要求，筒中筒结构：

筒体结构系统能使外墙中的柱具有灵活性，用以抵抗颠覆和剪切力。“筒中筒”这个名字顾名思义就是在建筑物的核心承重部分又被包围了第二层的一系列柱子，它们被当作是框架和支撑筒来使用。配置第二层柱的目的是增强抗颠覆能力和增大侧移刚度。这些筒体不是同样的功能，也就是说，有些筒体是结构的，而有些筒体是用来支撑的。在考虑这种筒体时，清楚的认识和区别变形的剪切和弯曲分量是很重要的，这源于对梁的对比分析。在结构筒中，剪切构件的偏角和柱、纵梁（例如：结构筒中的网等）的弯曲有关，同时，弯曲构件的偏角取决于柱子的轴心压缩和延伸（例如：结构筒的边缘等）。在支撑筒中，剪切构件的偏角和对角线的轴心变形有关，而弯曲构件的偏角则与柱子的轴心压缩和延伸有关。

根据梁的对比分析，如果平面保持原形（例如：厚楼板），那么外层筒中柱的轴心压力就会与中心筒柱的轴心压力相差甚远，而且稳定的大于中心筒。但是在筒中筒结构的设计中，当发展到极限时，内部轴心压力会很高的，甚至远远大于外部的柱子。这种反常的现象是由于两种体系中的剪切构件的刚度不同。这很容易去理解，内筒可以看成是一个支撑（或者说是剪切刚性的）筒，而外筒可以看成是一个结构（或者说是剪切弹性的）筒。

核心交互式结构：

核心交互式结构属于两个筒与某些形式的三维空间框架相配合的筒中筒特殊情况。事实上，这种体系常用于那种外筒剪切刚度为零的结构。位于 Pittsburgh 的美国钢铁大楼证实了这种体系是能很好的工作的。在核心交互式结构中，内筒是一个支撑结构，外筒没有任何剪切刚度，而且两种结构体系能通过一个空间结构或“帽”式结构共同起作用。需要指出的是，如果把外部的柱子看成是一种从“帽”到基础的直线体系，这将是不合适的；根据支撑核心的弹性曲线，这些柱子只发挥了刚度的 15%。同样需要指出的是，内柱中与侧向力有关的轴向力沿筒高度由拉力变为压力，同时变化点位于筒高度的约 5/8 处。当然，外柱也传递相同的轴向力，这种轴向力低于作用在整个柱子高度的侧向荷载，因为这个体系的剪切刚度接近于零。把内外相连接的空间结构、悬臂梁或桁架经常遵照一些规范来布置。美国电话电报总局就是一个布置交互式构件的生动例子。

结构体系长 59.7 米，宽 28.6 米，高 183.3 米。布置了两个筒，每个筒的尺寸是 9.4

土木工程抗侧向荷载的结构体系毕业论文中英文资料对照外文翻译文献综述

米×12.2 米，在长方向上有 27.4 米的间隔。在短方向上内筒被支撑起来，但是在长方向上没有剪切刚度。环绕着建筑物布置了一个外筒。外筒是一个瞬时抵抗结构，但是在每个长方向的中心 15.2 米都没有剪切刚度。

在建筑的顶部布置了一个空间桁架构成的“帽式”结构。

在建筑的底部布置了一个相似的空间桁架结构。

由于外筒的剪切刚度在建筑的底部接近零，整个建筑基本上由两个钢板筒来支持。 框格体系或束筒体系结构：

位于美国芝加哥的西尔斯大厦是箱式结构的经典之作，它由九个相互独立的筒组成的一个集中筒。由于西尔斯大厦包括九个几乎垂直的筒，而且筒在平面上无须相似，基本的结构体系在不规则形状的建筑中得到特别的应用。一些单个的筒高于建筑一点或很多是很常见的。

事实上，这种体系的重要特征就在于它既有坚固的一面，也有脆弱的一面。这种体系的脆弱，特别是在结构筒中，与柱子的压缩变形有很大的关系，柱子的压缩变形有下式计算：

△=ΣfL/E

对于那些层高为 3.66 米左右和平均压力为 138MPa 的建筑，在荷载作用下每层柱子的压缩变形为 15（12）/29000 或 1.9 毫米。在第 50 层柱子会压缩 94 毫米，小于它未受压的长度。这些柱子在 50 层的时候和 100 层的时候的变形是不一样的，位于这两种体系之间接近于边缘的那些柱需要使这种不均匀的变形得以调解。主要的结构工作都集中在布置中。在 Melbourne 的 Rialto 项目中，结构工程师发现至少有一幢建筑，很有必要垂直预压低高度的柱子，以便使柱不均匀的变形差得以调解，调解的方法近似于后拉伸法，即较短的柱转移重量到较高的邻柱上。

土木工程抗侧向荷载的结构体系毕业论文中英文资料对照外文翻译文献综述

Structural systems to resist lateral loads

Commonly Used Structural Systems

With loads measured in tens of thousands kips, there is little room in the design of high-rise buildings for excessively complex thoughts. Indeed, the better high-rise buildings carry the universal traits of simplicity of thought and clarity of expression.

It does not follow that there is no room for grand thoughts. Indeed, it is with such grand

thoughts that the new family of high-rise buildings has evolved. Perhaps more important, the new concepts of but a few years ago have become commonplace in today’ s technology. Omitting some concepts that are related strictly to the materials of construction, the most

commonly used structural systems used in high-rise buildings can be categorized as follows: Moment-resisting frames.

Braced frames, including eccentrically braced frames.

Shear walls, including steel plate shear walls.

Tube-in-tube structures.

Tube-in-tube structures.

Core-interactive structures.

Cellular or bundled-tube systems.

Particularly with the recent trend toward more complex forms, but in response also to the need for increased stiffness to resist the forces from wind and earthquake, most high-rise buildings have

structural systems built up of combinations of frames, braced bents, shear walls, and related systems.

Further, for the taller buildings, the majorities are composed of interactive elements in three-dimensional arrays.

The method of combining these elements is the very essence of the design process for high-rise

buildings. These combinations need evolve in response to environmental, functional, and cost

considerations so as to provide efficient structures that provoke the architectural

development to

new heights. This is not to say that imaginative structural design can create great

architecture. To the contrary, many examples of fine architecture have been created with only moderate support

from the structural engineer, while only fine structure, not great architecture, can be developed without the genius and the leadership of a talented architect. In any event, the best of both is needed to formulate a truly extraordinary design of a high-rise building.

While comprehensive discussions of these seven systems are generally available in the

literature, further discussion is warranted here .The essence of the design process is distributed throughout the discussion.

Moment-Resisting Frames

土木工程抗侧向荷载的结构体系毕业论文中英文资料对照外文翻译文献综述

Perhaps the most commonly used system in low-to medium-rise buildings, the

moment-resisting frame, is characterized by linear horizontal and vertical members connected essentially rigidly at their joints. Such frames are used as a stand-alone system or in combination with other systems so as to provide the needed resistance to horizontal loads. In the taller of high-rise buildings, the system is likely to be found inappropriate for a stand-alone system, this because of the difficulty in mobilizing sufficient stiffness under lateral forces.

Analysis can be accomplished by STRESS, STRUDL, or a host of other appropriate

computer programs; analysis by the so-called portal method of the cantilever method has no place in today’s technology.

Because of the intrinsic flexibility of the column/girder intersection, and because

preliminary

designs should aim to highlight weaknesses of systems, it is not unusual to use

center-to-center

dimensions for the frame in the preliminary analysis. Of course, in the latter phases of design, a

realistic appraisal in-joint deformation is essential.

Braced Frames

The braced frame, intrinsically stiffer than the moment –resisting frame, finds also greater application to higher-rise buildings. The system is characterized by linear horizontal, vertical, and diagonal members, connected simply or rigidly at their joints. It is used commonly in conjunction with other systems for taller buildings and as a stand-alone system in low-to medium-rise buildings.

While the use of structural steel in braced frames is common, concrete frames are more likely to be of the larger-scale variety.

Of special interest in areas of high seismicity is the use of the eccentric braced frame.

Again, analysis can be by STRESS, STRUDL, or any one of a series of two –or three dimensional analysis computer programs. And again, center-to-center dimensions are used commonly in the preliminary analysis.

Shear walls

The shear wall is yet another step forward along a progression of ever-stiffer structural systems.

The system is characterized by relatively thin, generally (but not always) concrete elements that

provide both structural strength and separation between building functions.

In high-rise buildings, shear wall systems tend to have a relatively high aspect ratio, that is, their height tends to be large compared to their width. Lacking tension in the foundation system,

any structural element is limited in its ability to resist overturning moment by the width of

土木工程抗侧向荷载的结构体系毕业论文中英文资料对照外文翻译文献综述

the

system and by the gravity load supported by the element. Limited to a narrow overturning, One

obvious use of the system, which does have the needed width, is in the exterior walls of building,

where the requirement for windows is kept small.

Structural steel shear walls, generally stiffened against buckling by a concrete overlay, have found application where shear loads are high. The system, intrinsically more economical than steel bracing, is particularly effective in carrying shear loads down through the taller floors in the areas immediately above grade. The sys tem has the further advantage of having high ductility a feature

of particular importance in areas of high seismicity.

The analysis of shear wall systems is made complex because of the inevitable presence of large openings through these walls. Preliminary analysis can be by truss-analogy, by the finite element method, or by making use of a proprietary computer program designed to consider the interaction,

or coupling, of shear walls.

Framed or Braced Tubes

The concept of the framed or braced or braced tube erupted into the technology with the IBM

Building in Pittsburgh, but was followed immediately with the twin 110-story towers of the World Trade Center, New York and a number of other buildings .The system is characterized by three –dimensional frames, braced frames, or shear walls, forming a closed surface more or less

cylindrical in nature, but of nearly any plan configuration. Because those columns that resist lateral forces are placed as far as possible from the cancroids of the system, the overall moment of inertia

is increased and stiffness is very high.

The analysis of tubular structures is done using three-dimensional concepts, or by two-

dimensional analogy, where possible, whichever method is used, it must be capable of accounting for the effects of shear lag.

The presence of shear lag, detected first in aircraft structures, is a serious limitation in the

stiffness of framed tubes. The concept has limited recent applications of framed tubes to the shear of

60 stories. Designers have developed various techniques for reducing the effects of shear lag, most

noticeably the use of belt trusses. This system finds application in buildings perhaps 40stories and

higher. However, except for possible aesthetic considerations, belt trusses interfere with nearly

every building function associated with the outside wall; the trusses are placed often at mechanical

floors, mush to the disapproval of the designers of the mechanical systems. Nevertheless, as

土木工程抗侧向荷载的结构体系毕业论文中英文资料对照外文翻译文献综述

a cost-effective structural system, the belt truss works well and will likely find continued approval from designers. Numerous studies have sought to optimize the location of these trusses, with the optimum location very dependent on the number of trusses provided. Experience would indicate,however, that the location of these trusses is provided by the optimization of mechanical systems and by aesthetic considerations, as the economics of the structural system is not highly sensitive to belt truss location.

Tube-in-Tube Structures

The tubular framing system mobilizes every column in the exterior wall in resisting

over-turning and shearing forces. The term‘tube-in-tube’is largely self-explanatory in that a second ring of columns, the ring surrounding the central service core of the building, is used as an inner framed or braced tube. The purpose of the second tube is to increase

resistance to over turning and to increase lateral stiffness. The tubes need not be of the same character; that is, one tube could be framed, while the other could be braced.

In considering this system, is important to understand clearly the difference between the shear and the flexural components of deflection, the terms being taken from beam analogy. In a framed tube, the shear component of deflection is associated with the bending

deformation of columns and girders (i.e, the webs of the framed tube) while the flexural component is associated with the axial shortening and lengthening of columns (i.e, the

flanges of the framed tube). In a braced tube, the shear component of deflection is associated with the axial deformation of diagonals while the flexural component of deflection is associated with the axial shortening and lengthening of columns.

Following beam analogy, if plane surfaces remain plane (i.e, the floor slabs),then axial stresses in the columns of the outer tube, being farther form the neutral axis, will be

substantially larger than the axial stresses in the inner tube. However, in the tube-in-tube design, when optimized, the axial stresses in the inner ring of columns may be as high, or even higher, than the axial stresses in the outer ring. This seeming anomaly is associated with differences in the shearing component of stiffness between the two systems. This is easiest to under-stand where the inner tube is conceived as a braced (i.e, shear-stiff) tube while the outer tube is conceived as a framed (i.e, shear-flexible) tube.

Core Interactive Structures

Core interactive structures are a special case of a tube-in-tube wherein the two tubes are coupled together with some form of three-dimensional space frame. Indeed, the system is used often wherein the shear stiffness of the outer tube is zero. The United States Steel

Building, Pittsburgh, illustrates the system very well. Here, the inner tube is a braced frame, the outer tube has no shear stiffness, and the two systems are coupled if they were considered as systems passing in a straight line from the “hat” structure. Note that the exterior columns would be improperly modeled if they were considered as systems passing in a straight line from the “hat” to the foundations; these columns are perhaps 15% stiffer as they follow the elastic curve of the braced core. Note also that the axial forces associated with the lateral forces in the inner columns change from tension to compression over the height of the

土木工程抗侧向荷载的结构体系毕业论文中英文资料对照外文翻译文献综述

tube,with the in flection point at about

5/8 of the height of the tube. The outer columns, of course, carry the same axial force under lateral load for the full height of the columns because the columns because the shear stiffness of the system is close to zero.

The space structures of outrigger girders or trusses, that connect the inner tube to the outer tube, are located often at several levels in the building. The AT&T headquarters is an example of an astonishing array of interactive elements:

The structural system is 94 ft (28.6m) wide, 196ft(59.7m) long, and 601ft (183.3m) high.

Two inner tubes are provided, each 31ft(9.4m) by 40 ft (12.2m), centered 90 ft (27.4m) apart in the long direction of the building.

The inner tubes are braced in the short direction, but with zero shear stiffness in the long

direction.

A single outer tube is supplied, which encircles the building perimeter.

The outer tube is a moment-resisting frame, but with zero shear stiffness for the center50ft (15.2m) of each of the long sides.

A space-truss hat structure is provided at the top of the building.

A similar space truss is located near the bottom of the building

The entire assembly is laterally supported at the base on twin steel-plate tubes, because the shear stiffness of the outer tube goes to zero at the base of the building.

Cellular structures

A classic example of a cellular structure is the Sears Tower, Chicago, a bundled tube

structure of nine separate tubes. While the Sears Tower contains nine nearly identical tubes, the basic structural system has special application for buildings of irregular shape, as the several tubes need not be similar in plan shape, It is not uncommon that some of the individual tubes one of the strengths and one of the weaknesses of the system.

This special weakness of this system, particularly in framed tubes, has to do with the concept

of differential column shortening. The shortening of a column under load is given by the expression

△=ΣfL/E

For buildings of 12 ft (3.66m) floor-to-floor distances and an average compressive stress of 15 ksi (138MPa), the shortening of a column under load is 15 (12)(12)/29,000 or 0.074in (1.9mm) per

story. At 50 stories, the column will have shortened to 3.7 in. (94mm) less than its unstressed length.

Where one cell of a bundled tube system is, say, 50stories high and an adjacent cell is, say, 100stories high, those columns near the boundary between .the two systems need to have this differential deflection reconciled.

Major structural work has been found to be needed at such locations. In at least one

土木工程抗侧向荷载的结构体系毕业论文中英文资料对照外文翻译文献综述

building,

the Rialto Project, Melbourne, the structural engineer found it necessary to vertically

pre-stress the lower height columns so as to reconcile the differential deflections of columns in close proximity with the post-tensioning of the shorter column simulating the weight to be added on to adjacent, higher columns.