第五章 设计船舶的风险与船东批准图纸

发布时间:2024-11-12

第五章 设计船舶的风险与船东批准图纸

1. NEWBUILDCON与SAJ在这方面的比较

这里简单介绍造船合约的要旨,例如在NEWBUILDCON就说明船厂所要做的就是: “the Builder shall design, construct, test and survey, launch, equip, complete, sell and deliver the Vessel to the Buyer all in accordance with good international shipbuilding and marine engineering practice;”(船厂必须设计、建造、测试与检查、下水、装置设备、完成、出售与交付船舶给买方并依照国际上良好的造船与海事工程做法)

而船东所要做的就是:

“the Buyer shall purchase, take delivery and pay for the Vessel.”(买方必须购买、接收交付并对船舶进行支付)

这明示了是船厂去设计有关的船舶,所以,设计不妥的后果也应该是船厂负责。显然,如果不是这样的安排,而是船厂根据船东提供的设计去建造船舶,上述的条文就要作出一定的修改。例如最明确的就是把“设计”一词删除,然后在附加条文说明船舶或船舶部分的设计是由船东提供与负责。

上述NEWBUILDCON的文字清楚说明了船厂有设计的责任,这是在另外一种标准造船格式SAJ中没有提到的。SAJ的相关序言只提到了建造、下水、装置设备、完成、出售与交付船舶给买方(In consideration of the mutual convenants herein contained, the BUILDER agrees to build, launch, equip and complete at its … and sell and deliver to the BUYER …)。但会有情况是在双方订约时,船东会要求去在SAJ的标准条文中加上“设计”一词。如果没有去加上,设计的风险谁属就要看英国法律(如果造船合约适用英国法)的默示地位,这在稍后会介绍。

2. 设计不妥的定义

设计主要是表现在图纸(drawings)所包含与传达的技术性的想法,正如在Malcolm Clarke所著的《Shipbuilding Contracts》一书第77页对其的定义如下:

“The design is an intellectual achievement giving a technical definition of a physical product and may also include instructions on the method to be applied in the execution of the work. The design is thus a technical idea—or complex of technical ideas—which may be communicated to others as the design is expressed in drawings, technical specifications, etc. The design, however, is not the drawings as such, but the technical ideas contained therein.”

设计不妥可以发生在许多方面,包括船舶或者她的主机、辅助机器、舵机、舱盖等等。例如在设计上它的强度或者稳定性不足,反正按照该设计建造出来都会有同样的毛病。它与工艺不善(bad workmanship)或材料不善(faulty materials)在造船是有一个传统明显的分别。设计不妥是针对准备船舶的规范说明与图纸(preparations of specifications and drawings/plans),而工艺与材料不善涉及了去执行该些船舶规范说明与图纸的时候出错。Barker v. Lull Engineering Company Inc, Supreme Court of California, 1978案例有针对这两者分别的论述,如下:

“A manufacturing or production defect is readily identifiable because a defective product is one that differs from the manufacturer s intended result or from other ostensibly identical units of the same product line … A design defect, by contrast, cannot be identified simply by comparing the injury-producing product with the manufacturer s plans or with other units of the same product line, since by definition the plans and all such units will reflect the same design.”

针对设计不妥,Kennedy大法官在Jackson v. Munford (1902) 8 Com Cas 61先例中说是指涉及了设计人自己的错误判断,而照此设计生产出了的主机本身是完全没有问题,有关的工艺也是完全没有问题,可以说整个建造是完全照足设计人的期望:

“… the erroneous judgment of the designer as to the effect of the strain which his machinery will have to resist, the machinery itself being faultless, the workmanship faultless, and the construction precisely that which the designer intended it to be.”

设计不妥除了会出大事情之外,也经常会出现。在一些针对岸上的建筑所作的统计,发觉因为设计不妥而导致的索赔在索赔总数中占很大的比例,例如是54%在一个香港的调查:Kumaraswamy, Mohan M, “Common categories and causes of construction claims” (1997) 13 Const LJ 21。这调查虽然不是针对造船,但估计有一定的参考价值。

设计不妥可以是涉及设计人的疏忽,例如是错误解读设计,不完整的设计资料,等。但也可以涉及当时的技术水平仍未提升至可以避免出问题的程度。

设计的问题要去针对应该是十分重要,它涉及了几个方面,例如是针对设计的知识产权。但更重要的就是设计不妥所带来的合约或侵权问题,而这种问题会是十分严重。设计不妥的问题可能会在建造中途就会出现,例如听说大连一个船厂曾经为一家欧洲船东建造两艘化学品船舶,结果因为设计问题,主机无法装进船壳而造成了严重的延误与需要重新设计。但很多时候设计不妥的问题根本在建造与交船的时候看不出来,在将来的营运中才会出现大问题。例如在著名的油污事件The “Amoco Cadiz” (1984) 2 Lloyd s Rep. 304,该轮在1978年3月份装了121,157吨燃油在快将通过英伦海峡的时候舵机突然失灵,在法国海岸搁浅,导致了船舶全损与十分严重的油污。法国政府在美国提出起诉,索赔巨额赔偿,而被告是船东、美国船级社、西班牙船厂,等。美国法院最后的认定是

由于舵机的设计出了问题,直接原因是液压管道的一个法兰盘(flange)有6个链档(studs)破裂了5个,导致液压迅速流失。但这6个链档完全依照设计要求的规范说明,并且被美国船级社所批准。由于舵机是西班牙船厂所设计,所以他要负上责任。

3. 设计不妥与潜在缺陷的区别

设计不妥也与潜在缺陷(latent defect)不一样,虽然造成潜在缺陷的原因可能是一开始的设计不妥,或是建造不妥,或是没有修好。潜在缺陷是可以有多种原因所造成,它被称为潜在只是因为以一般的检查办法是无法察觉的。潜在缺陷在Parente v. Bayville Marine Inc. and General Insurance Co. of America (1975) 1 Lloyd s Rep. 333的定义如下: “… a defect or flaw, generally in the metal itself, which could not be discovered by any known and customary test … [and that] the results of normal wear and tear and gradual deterioration due to the corrosive efforts of seawater do not constitute a latent defect.”

这两者之间的区别,也有在The “Caribbean Sea” (1980) 1 Lloyd s Rep. 338有争辩,该船舶在相对良好的天气下在美湾沉没,结果在船东与保险商的诉讼中被推断是主要的海水吸入口管道在设计上有不妥,带来疲劳断裂(fatigue fracture),而导致船舶进水沉没。拒赔的保险人指船舶沉没主因是由于设计不妥所引致,这是在船舶保险的承保范围外。保单保的只是潜在缺陷,这与设计不妥并不相同。但Goff大法官判是由于潜在缺陷而导致了船舶的沉没,至于什么原因引起潜在缺陷,就可能会包括设计不妥,但后者并非是近因。

但由于有这种争论,所以在一些拟定得比较好的保单会去把两种情况都去包括在内,作为承保的风险。比如说英国针对船厂建造船舶的保单所用的条文是“Institute Clauses for Builders Risks”(1/6/88),就在第5.1条文承保了潜在缺陷,只要该缺陷是在承保期间被发现,说:

“5.1 SUBJECT ALWAYS TO ITS TERMS, CONDITIONS AND EXCLUSIONS this insurance is against all risks of loss of or damage to the subject-matter insured caused and discovered during the period of this insurance including the cost of repairing replacing or renewing any defective part condemned solely in consequence of the discovery therein during the period of this insurance of a latent defect.”

但同时,在第8条文也去明示承保设计不妥的风险,说:

“8. Faulty design

Notwithstanding anything to the contrary which may be contained in the Policy or the clauses attached thereto, this insurance includes loss of or damage to the subject matter insured caused and discovered during the period of this insurance arising from faulty design of any part or parts thereof but in no case shall this insurance extend to cover the cost or expense of

repairing, modifying, replacing or renewing such part or parts, nor any cost or expense incurred by reason of betterment or alteration in design.”

4. 船舶是由谁设计的

船舶的设计有三种来源,(一)是船厂自己设计,(二)是由船厂委托独立的设计机构或购买已经有的设计,(三)是船东负责设计。

通常去针对一般性的标准船舶,船舶设计是船厂自己做的事,但这也会有变化。在一些比较专门的船舶,又或是游艇,有可能是买方,也就是船东提供船舶的设计给船厂。这提供的设计也有可能是由第三者所做的,例如在80年代,有美国著名的海事建筑师Campbell先生为日本船厂所设计的一连串F型系列船舶(Freedom, Fortune, Future等标准船舶),反正每造一艘要支付一定的专利费用给Campbell先生。在这种情况如果在造船合约没有条文去针对船厂或船东要承担设计的责任,就更加麻烦。因为难以去默示谁应该对设计的不妥所造成的后果负责。在Dixon Kerly Ltd. v. Robinson (1965) 2 Lloyd s Rep. 404,就是一艘游艇的设计也并非是由船东提供给船厂的,而是由第三者提供的。判是根据事实船厂的责任仅仅是根据提供的图纸来建造此游艇,并没有默示保证说船舶要合理地适合在英伦海峡航行。

另在一个更早的先例Mayor and Commonalty of London (1876) 1 App. Cas. 120,是一个非海事案件,涉及了一方当事人招标邀请对方针对一个特别的设计好的图纸去承担工程,判是对方没有默示的保证所建造的工程可以依照提供的图纸与设计去履行。通俗来说可以是甲方邀请乙方按照图纸造飞机,乙方完全照图纸来做,工艺与材料都没有问题,但最后造出来的飞机飞不起来,这就不能说是乙方的责任了。当然有关合约里可以明示约定乙方照此图纸来造飞机并且保证飞机一定飞得起来,而乙方也愿意承担这种不合理的责任,这是订约自由,是另一回事了。

在订约的自由下,造船合约可以任意去将设计不妥的责任明确要船厂或船东去承担。固然,如果是船厂负责设计(这是大多数的情况),但把有关的责任去加在船东的头上,虽然是可以,但必须要用十分清楚的文字或措辞,因为它本质上不合理。比较有争议的是由船厂委托独立的设计机构或购买已经有的设计,因为有可能该设计机构或购买技术的建议是来自船东。但船厂要去把设计的责任加在船东的头上会遇到抗拒,因为船东的看法是委托方毕竟还是船厂,而不是船东。反正对船厂最重要的事情是要提前去掌握有关设计机构或已经有的设计咨询情况与设计的水平,并在合约中尽量不承担或少承担这方面的责任。在戴耀南、杨新昆与蔡焕有2008.1.1主编的《船舶合同的签订、履行和管理》一书之169页,就提到了造船合约有利的条文所带来的好处,如下:

“对此,69,000吨化学品/成品油船的合同就处理得较好。

该船的设计是由船东推荐、由船厂委托的。在这条船的建造合同中,在第九条质量保证

条款中写进‘由于设计原因造成本船的任何缺陷或损失,船厂一律不承担任何责任。’实践证明,由于这一条款的存在,避免了工厂的严重损失。

该船倾斜试验之后,发现实际载重量比合同规定要少1,500吨。对此,船东正式以书面形式提出弃船要求。我们根据合同有关条款规定,据理力争,迫使船东放弃这个要求。 再如,根据69,000吨化学品/成品油船1号船实船使用情况,空调机制冷位置安排不当,引起餐厅内振动过强,噪音过大,船东提出要重新布置该机组。当时,1号船正处在保修期内,修改工作必须在欧洲进行,所需费用不下十几万美元。2号船正在紧张施工中,修改必然给生产进度和经济效益造成影响。我们根据合同规定‘我厂对因设计原因造成的任何缺陷不承担责任’迫使船东撤回了他们的要求。由此,不仅避免了1号船的损失,又为2号船该项修改工作争取到一定数额的加账。”

5. 法律的默示地位

如果没有明示条文针对设计不妥的责任,而出了事情要去依赖默示地位,就必须要合理才可以去默示。看来,合理的责任分摊是谁设计就谁承担责任。由于大部分情况都是船厂负责设计,再加上船厂一般是比较有经验与有条件去估计与管理设计的风险,所以责任应该是归船厂。这看来也是普通法的地位,这里可以介绍两个先例。

第一个先例是A.M. Gillespie & Co. v. James Howden & Co. (1885) 12 R 800,有关造船的设计是根据船厂提供的一个模型,而在建造之前也被买方/船东所批准。造船合约对有关的规范说明是“to carry 1,800 deadweight, including coals, on 14.5 feet draught”。但由于设计的问题,船舶的载重量有短少,船东向船厂提出索赔,判是船厂要负责。

另一个案件是比较近期而且法律地位更加明确,就是Aktiebolaget Gotaverken v. Westminster Corporation of Monrovia and Another (1971) 2 Lloyd s Rep. 505,有关的工程是一艘油轮在瑞典的船厂进行修理与改装为散装货轮。既然是变为散装货轮,就很需要安装水密的舱盖。在工程完工后,船舶装货开航去美国,发生了严重的货损,因为舱盖漏水。舱盖的问题是完全隐蔽的,船东无法在完工并接收船舶的时候发现有问题。船东在美国进行了昂贵的修理,并去加添了舱盖帆布(tarpaulins)以保证在航次中防止海水浸入货舱。反正是因为问题严重而导致了最后要去重新装配新舱盖。在仲裁中,船厂的争议是他不必对舱盖的设计不妥负责,这种并不是材料或者工艺的不妥:“Gotaverken (船厂) are absolved from liability if and in so far as the damages claimed by the Owners are solely referable to defects or deficiencies of design of the hatch covers and hatch coamings (as opposed to defects of deficiencies of materials or workmanship) .”

该案件去了法院,Donaldson大法官认为在该合约中,工艺良好是包括了设计与执行/建造,说:

“The contract, as varied, required Gotaverken to supply watertight hatch covers. This

required good workmanship both in design and the execution, and if there were design errors, I see no reason why these should not be characterized and attract liability as bad workmanship. The alternative view would be that Gotaverken escaped all liability … which seems an improbable result for the parties to have intended.”

再次顺便一提的是有另一个有关舱盖严重漏水的问题,也涉及设计不妥,并带来重大索赔的是Biakh v. Hyundai (1988) 1 Lloyd s Rep. 187。

在Rasbora v J.C.L. Marine (1977) 1 Lloyd s Rep. 645中,Lawton大法官看来也是与Donaldson大法官持同样看法,就是把船厂设计与生产不妥的责任去联系在一起,说: “Put shortly, here was a power boat of the defendants devising designed and manufactured by them for use at sea. The safety of 410 (船舶) and those aboard her was a vital matter and the risks of fire at sea and its consequences are great. To a material and substantial extent that safety and the safeguarding against fire risk depends upon the electrical installations and circuits on 410 being properly designed and installed.”

除了普通法外,立法也有关系,这就是英国1979年的《货物销售法》,它有一个默示条件就是卖方保证出售的货物必须合理适合有关的用途(fitness for purpose)。如果船舶设计不妥而导致不能装货或不能航行等等,显然是不适合有关的用途。该有关的条文是第14条与第62条如下:

“14 (2) Where the seller sells goods in the course of a business, there is an implied condition that the goods supplied under the contract are of merchantable quality, except that there is no such condition—

(a) as regards defects specifically drawn to the buyer s attention before the contract is made; or

(b) if the buyer examines the goods before the contract is made, as regards defects which that examination ought to reveal.

(3) Where the seller sells goods in the course of a business and the buyer, expressly or by implication makes known—

(a) to the seller…

any particular purpose for which the goods are being bought, there is an implied condition that the goods supplied under the contract are reasonably fit for purpose, whether or not that is the purpose for which such goods are commonly supplied, except where the circumstances show that the buyer does not rely, or that it is unreasonable for him to rely, on the skill or judgement of the seller.

62. Goods of any kind are of merchantable quality within the meaning of the Act if they are fit for the purpose or purposes for which goods of that kind are commonly bought as it is

reasonable to expect having regard to any description applied to them, the price (if relevant) and all other relevant circumstances.”

6. 造船合约下担保期内或以后发现的设计不妥

通常在一些比较保障船厂的造船合约的标准格式,例如是SAJ,它会去以清楚文字的免责条文排除这一些法律带来的默示责任,除了是交船后第一年的担保期。例如在SAJ Article IX 4 (c),如下:

“The guarantee contained as hereinabove in this Article (这是指交船后第一年的担保期)replaces and excludes any other liability, guarantee, warranty and/or condition imposed or implied by the law, customary, statutory or otherwise, by reason of the construction and sale of the VESSEL by the BUILDER for and to the BUYER.”

但即使是这样的条文,在默示地位下船厂还是在设计不妥上有责任,如果设计不妥的问题在建造中途出现或者在一年担保期内出现。在一年担保期内出现的设计不妥问题,除非造船合约另有明示条文把有关责任加在船东的头上,否则看来船厂是要负责。这方面还没有看到相关先例,但在The “Elf” (1985) LMLN No. 145,有关的船厂在法院诉讼中接受在担保期内发现的工艺不妥或是设计不妥,他都要负责。 这在Simon Curtis所著的《The Law of Shipbuilding Contracts》第三版第159页的脚注16有提到,说:“In The Elf …the shipbuilders conceded that the obligation to rectify defective workmanship discovered during the warranty period was capable of encompassing design errors; this issue did not accordingly need to be decided.”。

至于船厂被第三者以侵权起诉,例如是The “Amoco Cadiz” (1984) 2 Lloyd s Rep. 304,这就不受造船合约的影响了。

7. 设计/图纸的批准

设计/图纸通常是必须由双方约定的船级社与有关当局(例如是船旗国)的批准,但这不代表将来不会出现设计不妥的问题。毕竟,设计不妥的问题经常会是隐蔽的。再说,即使涉及了船级社的疏忽,今天船级社提供服务的合约通常会去对疏忽的责任作出豁免。

设计/图纸通常还会有船东/买方的批准,这批准会是通过船东监督造船的总管。但同样是批准一般情况下并不会导致转移对设计不妥的责任,毕竟这不妥可能是看不出来。这方面在A.M. Gillespie & Co. v. James Howden & Co. (1885) 12 R 800已经有清楚说明批准并不代表责任的转移。笔者也不妨节录Simon Curtis所著的《The Law of Shipbuilding Contracts》第三版第20页的一段话如下:

“In circumstances in which the builder assumes the design risk, provisions permitting the buyer to approve plans and drawing for the vessel will not normally transfer the design responsibility to him. For the avoidance of any doubt, however, the contract will often incorporate an express term confirming that the builder s design liabilities will be unaffected by any approvals of plans and drawings issued by the buyer.”

但在某些情况下,船东代表去批准图纸会带来禁止翻供(estoppel)的说法,特别是船东坚持对船厂提供的设计/图纸作出特定的修改,而且船厂最后也依照了船东的要求。但之后带来了问题,这一来就可能会有不同的结果。毕竟,这不是一般性批准这么简单。这方面可去节录Simon Curtis所著的《The Law of Shipbuilding Contracts》一书第三版73页所说的如下:

“The buyer s approval of plans and drawings may, however, in certain circumstances prevent (or estop ) him from subsequently contending that elements of the vessel s design as developed by such plans and drawings are deficient or non-compliant with specifications. In English law, where parties to a contract act on an assumed state of facts or law, the assumption being either shared by both or made by one and acquiesced in by the other (Republic of India v India SS Co. Ltd. [No.2] [1998] A.C. 878), either may be prevented from subsequently denying the truth of such assumption where it would be unjust to allow him to do so. A common assumption of this type may well occur in a shipbuilding context where a plan or drawing is approved by the buyer as compliant with the Specifications and the builder proceeds with construction of the vessel on the basis of such approval—depending upon the facts, the buyer may in such circumstances be estopped from demanding later changes to the vessel on the grounds that the plans or drawings he has previously approved are not in fact compliant.”

有关禁止翻供的争议在Cenargo Ltd v Empresa Nacional Bazan de Construcciones Navales Militares SA (2002) EWCA Civ 524有介绍,案情部分是关系到一个船厂(Astilleros)的保证就是该建造的滚装渡轮可容纳146辆长13米的拖车,但所交的船舶由于甲板内的局限导致船东(Cenargo)声称少了6辆拖车的空间。船厂其中的一个抗辩就是船东代表批准了有关的图纸,造成了行为上的禁止翻供(estoppel by convention)。但该造船合约之Article IV的相关规定是说明船厂要把这些有关的图纸去让船东去批准:“The Builder shall send to the Buyer … for approval three copies of the drawings and technical information of machinery and equipment, for which such approval if required by the Specification.”。 而同一条文又有规定说船东的批准并不减少船厂对船舶的建造责任:“The approvals and/or inspections do not diminish the Builder s responsibilities for the construction of the Vessel.”。至于上述的条文,一审的Andrew Smith大法官认为双方订约的意愿明确了船东代表批准图纸的行为不构成任何禁止翻供,说:

“I consider that this rebuts Astilleros case of estoppel by convention. Article IV, cl.7 shows

the parties intention that Astilleros should not cease to be responsible for the vessel s capacity because Cenargo gave approval to plans of this kind. Since this is how the contracts distribute responsibility, it does not seem to me unconscionable for Cenargo to assert their case against Astilleros.

For these reasons, had I found in favour of Cenargo upon the point of construction, I would not have found that they were precluded from putting forward their case.”

这样看来,造船合约有一条明示条文说明船东代表批准图纸不减少或豁免船厂对设计与建造船舶的责任是非常重要,因为它会去超越了法律默示的禁止翻供的说明。但在SAJ 的相关条文Article IV (1),并没有这样的规定。看来,在SAJ标准格式下船厂在这种情况下还是有机会提出禁止翻供的争议。在NEWBUILDCON就有这样去针对,对船东去批准图纸作出保障。这是在Clause 20 (f),如下:

“(f) The Buyer s approval or deemed approval of any Plans and Drawings shall not affect the obligations of the Builder to design, construct and deliver, or the obligations of the Buyer to take delivery of, and pay for, the Vessel in accordance with the other provisions of this Contract; nor shall it diminish the Builder s responsibility in respect of its obligations under this Contract nor shall it constitute any acceptance by the Buyer of any responsibility for any defect in the Vessel.”

上述的情况会在船东接船后在营运的时候发生因为设计不妥而造成的事故,自己蒙受损失,要去根据造船合约的条文向船厂索赔。能否去这样做就要看造船合约的针对有关交船后的条文了,答案应该是否,这已经在上一小段提到过。

8. 船厂的设计过程

在技术方面,笔者不敢多言,但是可以粗略地介绍一下船厂的设计过程。它往往是从一个粗糙的初步设计而一步步发展为一个非常详尽,每一方面都有所针对的设计与绘图。每一个阶段的设计都符合不同的作用。例如在最早期会是一个概念设计(conceptual design),它针对的会是某一种船型及一些主要特征,船厂就会据此去设计/绘图如初步的一般性结构(general arrangement),船舶横截面(mid-ship section),初步的规范说明,初步的各种计算(船舶长短、水深、容量等)与初步的船体图纸(body plan)。其他也会去加上是一些主要的设备,例如是主机等。概念设计主要的作用是让船厂可去在市场中向客户推销,当时离开签订造船合约恐怕还是十分遥远。

第二个阶段可称为是初步设计(preliminary design),在这个阶段双方的谈判已经进入了一个实质性的阶段,很有可能会产生一个要约。初步设计可以为合约提供足够的设计特征以利双方去约定。它会包括:功能需求(functional requirements),也就是船舶需

要具有哪些功能;需要符合的规定(regulations),因为船舶难免需要符合一些规定,例如船旗国或者船级社对此类船舶的规定等;设计标准(design standards)。买方在这个阶段会提供一些公司与行业标准给船厂,包括:材料尺寸(material size)、模件(modules)、工作航程(service runs)、艇架尺寸(block size)。而船厂就会据此去作出自己的设计,包括一般性结构、船舶横截面、规范说明、各种计算、船体图纸、船舶动力计算(propulsion arrangements)、船舶房间的设计(accommodation arrangements)、机械设备的安排(machinery arrangements)、管道布置图(piping diagrams)、电容分析(electrical-load analysis)以及图纸列表(plan list)。

第三个阶段是功能设计(functional design),这时造船合约已经达成,设计的重点因而转向拿出足够细节的船舶设计来得到船东、船级社或有关当局的批准。这个阶段将会给出整套的船级图纸。

再接下去的阶段会是详尽设计(detailed design),该阶段是把所有船舶的部分在它们的功能需求与批准全部得到满足后,去进一步设计以进行各种工作如采购、部分进行建造与事后去把它们安装/合并等方面。详尽设计通常是由船厂的图纸室(planning unit)去进行,而一艘船舶会涉及了数以百份的图纸来针对各方面。

在这个过程中,船东的代表/总管会一直参与并且批准图纸。但已经介绍过,这不代表船东会要去承担设计不妥的风险,去批准图纸也不会构成禁止翻供。撇开造船合约的写法,针对第三者而言,也被接受这是一般的做法。这可去看一个近期的先例名为The “Happy Ranger” (2006) LMLN No. 685。该船舶是一艘吊重船,她在1998年2月16日由船厂交给船东。该船舶就被安排去装运一台机器,重达833吨。在1998年3月11日,在吊起机器的时候,吊机跌落,原因是有一个潜在的缺陷。这导致了重大的损坏,包括了货物本身。该船舶的建造是经过劳合社去批准她的设计、规范说明与建造过程。船东在面对货方的索赔,争辩说他不必对船厂、分包商、吊机生产商及劳合社等在建造过程中的疏忽负责,因为他是1998年2月16日才接船。Gloster大法官同意,认为在建造的时候船舶还不属于船东,也在他的控制以外。虽然在交船前船长与大副已经上船,但这只是为了去熟悉船舶的操作,至于在建造时候船东有代表在各种测验去参与,船东是有权去交托测验的责任给吊车生产商与劳合社(that prior to 16 February 1998 the vessel was not within the defendant s orbit (see W Angliss v. Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Co (1927) 28 Ll L Rep 139. The Kapitan Sakharov [2000] 2 Lloyd s Rep 255 and The Muncaster Castle [1961] 1 Lloyd s Rep 57). The fact that the master and/or chief officer were on board the vessel prior to delivery for familiarization purposes did not mean that the vessel passed into the defendant s orbit prior to 16 February. Although the defendant had a representative at the yard and present during the various tests, the defendant was, at the stage, entitled to entrust the testing regime to the crane manufacturer and Lloyd s)

9. 有关设计不妥的部分例子

这些例子会是多不胜数,但笔者不会在本书多谈技术问题。较早时已经举过的例子如The “Amoco Cadiz” (1984) 2 Lloyd s Rep. 304是有关船舶的舵机,Aktiebolaget Gotaverken v. Westminster Corporation of Monrovia and Another (1971) 2 Lloyd s Rep. 505是有关船舶的舱盖,而Rasbora v J.C.L. Marine (1977) 1 Lloyd s Rep. 645就关系到一艘由被告设计与建造的汽艇,并且有劳合社的批准,但不久后该汽艇在航行中发生火灾,并变为全损,被指是不妥的设计或不妥的电路安装所导致的。

9.1 例子之一

在Maritime Advocate Online (Issue 340, April 1, 2008)报道的一个船舶设计问题的案件,案情是关于一个海事建筑师(naval architect)设计了两艘依照美国海岸巡逻队规则,为了行走墨西哥湾的船舶。在第一艘船舶即将建造完毕之际,该海事建筑师告诉船厂与船东设计出了问题,将会导致建造出来船舶不符合严格的稳性标准。由于交船日期将至,船厂与该海事建筑师达成共识决定在船舶上多安装两个防水壁。然而在改装工程开展了不久,就发现原来的船舶设计是没有问题的。而导致不符合稳性标准的原因是由于采用了不同版本的新旧电脑软件导致,即船壳模型是由一个新版本的软件产生,而船舶分析图则是由一个旧版的软件产生。因此,改装工程不再需要就很快停止了,船舶在经过少量的修改后恢复原状或原来的设计。但这一来就带来了金钱上的损失,包括船厂多花了不必要的费用,并且带来了争议。

9.2 例子之二

在The “Aquarius II” (1996) 2 Lloyd s Rep. 353先例,去了贵族院,其不严格是针对设计不妥,被告也不是船厂而是做船舶主机买卖。它是关于一条渔船名为The “Aquarius II”。该船东雇用被告来更换船上的“凸轮轴”(cam shaft)。但多次工程失败,最后被迫整个船舶主机被换掉。而老一套主机与凸轮轴,被他人买去安装在另一船上,该船舶并没有同样问题。估计是凸轮轴没有不妥,但The “Aquarius II”轮本身有特别处(a particular abnormality or idiosyncrasy),导致凸轮轴有过多的扭曲震动(create excessive torsinal resonance in cam shafts)。

船东向被告索赔损失近70万英镑,指被告的凸轮轴“不适合用途”,是被告破坏了1979年《货物销售法》的Section 14(3)。

船东说被告明知凸轮轴是要去安装在The “Aquarius II”,安装工作也是被告做,所以该船舶有任何潜在的,不知悉的问题导致这凸轮轴不适合用途,风险与责任均是在被告。

但贵族院不同意,说这样去依赖被告(卖方)不公道,他根本无法去运用“技术与判断力”(skill or judgment)。Keith勋爵说大精神是:

“As a matter of principle, therefore, it may be said that where a buyer purchases goods from a seller who deals in goods of that description there is no breach of the implied condition of fitness where the failure of the goods to meet the intended purpose arises from an abnormal feature or idiosyncrasy, not made known to the seller, in the buyer or in the circumstances of the use of the goods by the buyer. That is the case whether or not the buyer is himself aware of the abnormal feature or idiosyncrasy.”

9.3 例子之三

在Stone Vickers v. AS (1991) 2 Lloyd s Rep. 288,它是涉及了一艘海洋探测船,其中的可变螺距螺旋桨(controllable pitch propeller)在试航的时候发觉有问题,就是螺旋桨发出声音,这被造船业视为一种名为“唱歌螺旋桨”(singing propeller)的情况而不被接受的。船厂之后为螺旋桨作出了一些修改,并在再次试航的时候把这个声音的问题解决了。但这带来了损失,包括修改的费用,第二次试航的费用以及第一次与第二次试航之间的额外费用,共70万英镑。而争议的双方就是船厂与提供、建造与设计该螺旋桨的分承建商。

9.4 例子之四

在The “Elf” (1985) LMLN No. 145,它涉及一艘船舶在船厂过了一年担保期6个星期后才进干坞,船东才第一次有机会看到螺旋浆出现凹坑(pitting)与腐蚀(erosion),这被船东修好。但接下去的7年,每一年度进干坞都出现了严重的凹坑, 由于气蚀(cavitation)所造成.。船厂(日本的Namura)接受这是设计上出了问题,但声称发现问题是在一年担保期以外,所以不必负责。Bingham大法官认为该造船合约的有关条文十分明确,判船厂胜诉。

9.5 例子之五

这是涉及了香港船东的一艘船舶,她在交船前的试航时看不出有什么毛病。但在交了船之后,主机的涡轮增压器(turbochargers)出现问题,就是很容易过热(达至400摄氏度)。这导致涡轮增压器的转速只能达到15,000rpm,而不是设计的20,000rpm。这表示船舶的航速最高只能达到12节,而不是造船合约中所保证的13.5节。显然,这带来了船东面对承租人的索赔与各种麻烦。问题应该是出在一个较小的喷嘴(nozzle),导致涡轮增压器与主机不配套。船东与船厂之间的争议涉及了这是建造的缺陷或是设计上的不妥,但看来由于船东过了担保期没有给船厂通知告知这个问题,所以船东要考虑去向制造主机的分承包商以侵权起诉。最后这个事件的进一步进展笔者没有再去跟进了。

9.6 例子之六

在Jackson v. Munford (1902) 8 Com Cas 61,案件涉及了一艘新建造的鱼雷驱逐舰。该军舰的设计人是希望主机能够有破纪录的速度,这在当时是一个非常大胆与困难的构思,涉及了主机要有很大的马力,舰体重量要很轻,而令整体的安全系数很低。结果在试航的时候主机的(活塞与曲拐轴)连接杆因为设计上力度不足断裂,导致人命伤亡与船舶的损坏。

10. 船东批准图纸

由于在本章已经在多处介绍过船东批准图纸的问题,所以,虽然这方面并非直接与设计不妥有直接关系,也就顺便继续探讨这方面剩下的问题。

10.1 SAJ与NEWBUILDCON的有关条文

在SAJ,有关条文是Article IV (1)如下:

“1. Approval of Plans and Drawings:

(a) The BUILDER shall submit to the BUYER three (3) copies of each of the plans and drawings to be submitted thereto for its approval at its address as set forth in Article XVIII hereof. The BUYER shall, within fourteen (14) days after receipt thereof, return to the BUILDER one (1) copy of such plans and drawings with the BUYER S approval or comments written thereon, if any. A list of the plans and drawings to be so submitted to the BUYER shall be mutually agreed upon between the parties hereto.

(b) When and if the Representative shall have been sent by the BUYER to the Shipyard in accordance with Paragraph 2 of this Article, the BUILDER may submit the remainder, if any, of the plans and drawings in the agreed list, to the Representative for its approval, unless otherwise agreed upon between the parties hereto. The Representative shall, within seven (7) days after receipt thereof, return to the BUILDER one (1) copy of such plans and drawings with his approval or comments written thereon, if any. Approval by the representative of the plans and drawings duly submitted to him shall be deemed to be the approval by the BUYER for all purposes of this Contract.

(c) In the event that the BUYER or the Representative shall fail to return the plans and drawings to the BUILDER within the time limit as hereinabove provided, such plans and drawings shall be deemed to have been automatically approved without any comment.”

在NEWBUILDCON,有关条文是第20条文如下:

“20 Approvals

The times and numbers specified in this Clause shall apply unless otherwise stated in the Specification.

(b) The Builder shall dispatch to the Buyer a total of three (3) full sets of the Plans and Drawings for the Buyer s approval and shall also submit such other technical information as the Buyer may reasonably require, not less than thirty (30) running days before any construction works commence. The Builder shall give notice to the Buyer advising the date of dispatch of the Plans and Drawings and the Buyer shall give notice to the Builder confirming receipt thereof. The Buyer shall within fourteen (14) running days of receipt send to the Builder one (1) set of the Plans and Drawings with the Buyer s approval or approval with comments, amendments or reservations.

In the event that the Buyer needs additional time to consider the Plans and Drawings submitted pursuant to this Clause, it shall request the same in writing of the Builder whose agreement shall not be unreasonably withheld. In the event that the Buyer s comments, amendments or reservations are unclear, unspecified or illegible, the Builder may give clarification within five (5) running days of receipt of the Builder s notice, the Builder shall determine whether and to what extent it can adopt the comments, amendments or reservations.

If requested by the Buyer in writing, the Plans and Drawings shall also be sent in an agreed electronic format.

(c) The Builder shall take due note of the Buyer s comments, amendments or reservations (if any) on Plans and Drawings submitted pursuant to this Clause and, if such comments, amendments or reservations are not of such a nature or extent as to constitute a modification or change of the Specification within the meaning of Clause 24 (Modifications and Changes), then the Builder shall commence or continue construction of the Vessel in accordance with the corrected or amended Plans and Drawings.

(d) If the Builder considers the comments, amendments or reservations to the Plans and Drawings are of a nature or extent that constitutes a modification or change under Clause 24 (Modifications and Changes), the Builder shall notify the Buyer accordingly and proceed in accordance with Clause 24 (Modifications and Changes). If the Buyer disagrees the matter shall be resolved in accordance with Clause 24(e).

(e) In the event that the Buyer fails to return any Plans and Drawings to the Builder with approval or approval with comments, amendments or reservations, if any, within the time

limit stated above, such Plans and Drawings shall be deemed to have been approved by the Buyer.

(f) The Buyer s approval or deemed approval of any Plans and Drawings shall not affect the obligations of the Builder to design, construct and deliver, or the obligations of the Buyer to take delivery of, and pay for, the Vessel in accordance with the other provisions of this Contract; nor shall it diminish the Builder s responsibility in respect of its obligations under this Contract nor shall it constitute any acceptance by the Buyer of any responsibility for any defect in the Vessel.

(g) The Builder shall give the Buyer, as soon as possible, copies of all relevant correspondence relating to the Vessel to and from the Classification Society and the Regulatory Authorities, together with all plans approved by the Classification Society.

10.2 两者的比较

首先是SAJ与NEWBUILDCON都说明了船厂必须给船东3套图纸,以让船东批准。要船厂给3套是除了文件很多之外,图纸也不一定容易影印,而船东会涉及不同的人士或部门要去研究才能最后作出批准。SAJ与NEWBUILDCON也规定了时间期限,要求船东必须回复船厂到底批准与否。去这样规定就可以避免将来对何谓合理时间的争议,因为每一份图纸都会涉及不同的复杂性。

但SAJ没有针对,而NEWBUILDCON有针对的是船厂在按照图纸去进行工程之前的30天,就已经必须把图纸送给船东批准。这一个规定看来是去配合在NEWBUILDCON的第20 (b)条文下船东有权去向船厂要求延长14天的期限,而船厂不能不合理拒绝。这一来,船厂必须很快根据图纸去进行工程但送给船东批准时没有留有一定空间,船东要求延长期限就会面对船厂振振有辞地拒绝批准这14天的期限延长。但由于NEWBUILDCON规定了去进行工程前30天就已经必须交给船东批准,就会令船东要求船厂去延长一个星期或10天,船厂拒绝就显得有点不合理了。

另是SAJ与NEWBUILDCON都有针对的是,如果船东不在期限内回复,船厂是应该怎么办。在SAJ的Article IV (1)(c)或NEWBUILDCON第20 (e)条文,说明如果船东没有在期限内回应批准或不批准,船厂就可以视为是船东无条件批准有关的船图。会有情况是船东如果过了期限才对船图有异议,但有关工程已经开始,船厂可以说是由于船东过了期限与图纸被视为已经批准而拒绝船东的异议或要船东承担修改的后果。毕竟,明示条文是说明船东必须(shall)在14天内回复船厂,不去这样做就会是违约。

SAJ也有针对另一种情况,就是在Article IV (1)(b),船东派总管去船厂监督造船。这一

来,船厂就可以把图纸交给总管去代船东批准,会是简单得多也快得多。SAJ故此在该条文把14天减少为7天,而总管的批准被视为是船东的批准。但NEWBUILDCON并没有类似的条文,变了船厂把图纸交给总管批准也一样有14天的期限。

另一个情况是SAJ没有针对但NEWBUILDCON有去针对的,就是船东如果在14天或延长了的期限内回复,但不是批准而是有一些意见、修改或保留。这一来,存在第一个问题就是船厂看不明白。NEWBUILDCON是说船厂可以回去向船东查询,而如果船东5天内不提供澄清,船厂就可以自己去决定接不接受与接受多少船东的意见、修改或保留。这表示船厂还是必须合理行事去作出决定。

再另一个情况也是SAJ没有针对但NEWBUILDCON有去针对的,就是船东不去批准图纸,而是去加上了一些意见、修改或保留。这会带来船东是否去对建造中船舶作出修改(modification)的问题,因为船东要求修改的话是涉及了额外费用,延长交船日期等方面,需要双方进一步去同意。但如果纯粹是船厂所用的图纸要先给船东批准,这方面并不涉及额外费用或延长交船日期。它们的区分会是看有关事项的本质与严重的程度,估计是船东不批准图纸而大幅度要求修改,是原来不必要的(例如船级社或有关当局不会不批准有关图纸),这会属于船东要求船厂去对船舶作出修改,再也不是批准图纸这么简单了。

如果有这一方面的争议,根据NEWBUILDCON之第20 (d)条文,船厂就必须通知船东,船东如果不同意船厂的看法,双方就要根据第42条文去交由专家判断或仲裁来解决了。

最后值得去重复的是NEWBUILDCON有第20 (f)条文,说明批准与否不影响船厂对建造船舶的责任,但SAJ没有同样的条文。已经在本章第7段的Cenargo Ltd v Empresa Nacional Bazan de Construcciones Navales Militares SA (2002) EWCA Civ 524先例有说明,加了这一条明示条文就不存在船东在批准图纸的时候太过积极或投入,但后来图纸被发现有错误或不符合造船合约的规范说明,而被船厂指船东构成了禁止翻供的危险。这一类禁止翻供简单的说法是双方的一些做法,“是双方共同对一件事做出了假设,或是一方导致了另一方有这种假设,并去根据这一个假设行事”(act on an assumed state of facts or law, the assumption being either shared by both or made by one and acquiesced in by the other):Republic of India v. India S.S Co Ltd (1998) AC 878。适用在图纸的批准,就是船东在批准的时候太过积极,作出了各种建议,而船厂就照此进行工程。将来图纸被发觉有问题,船厂就会可以说是他进行工程就是双方假设了图纸没有问题,或是船东导致了船厂有这种假设。所以,船东不能对图纸有缺陷或缺陷带来的问题去向船厂索赔,或船东已经被禁止翻供。

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