Chapter 5: Semantics

语义学

Semantics----the study of language meaning. 语义学是对语言意义的研究。 Meaning is central to the study of communication. 意义是研究交际的核心内容。 What is meaning?---- Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning. 2

Some views concerning the study of meaning Naming theory (Plato) 命名论 The conceptualist view 概念论 Contextualism (Bloomfield) 语境论 Behaviorism 行为主义论

Naming theory (Plato)命名论Words are names or labels for things. 词语只是代表物体的名字或标记。

Limitations: 1) Applicable to nouns only. 2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost, dragon, unicorn, phenix… 3) There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions, e.g. joy, impulse, hatred…

The conceptualist view 概念论The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. 语言学形式和所指之间(即语言和现实世 界之间)没有直接联系；而在对意义的解 释中，形式和所指是通过思维概念彼此联 系。 5

Ogden and Richards: semantic triangle 奥格登和理查兹的语义三角Thought/reference(concept)(思想/指称)

Symbol/form ( 符 号 / 形 式 ) word/phrase/sentence

Referent(所指) object in the

world of experience6

The Theory of Reference

Words → Meaning: Words ‘name’ or ‘refer to’ things -- Platonic Words→Concepts→Things: Ogden & Richards thought/concept/image

symbolizessymbol (word)

refers toreferent (object)7

stands for

airplane

Ogden and Richards: semantic triangle 奥格登和理查兹的语义三角

The symbol or a word signifies “things” by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker of the language; and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.

用符号或单词表示物体是通过言语者思 维中单词的形式与概念联系起来实现的。 从这个观点看，概念就是单词的意义。9

Contextualism (语境论)

Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context — elements closely linked with language behavior. 意义应当从场景, 运用, 语境这些与语言 行为紧密相联的成分的角度来进行研究. Two types of contexts are recognized: Situational context; linguistic situation 场景语境和语言语境10

Linguistic context: sometimes known as co-text, is concerned with the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word, and also with the part of text that precedes and foll

ows a particular utterance.语言语境有时也称为互文, 它所涉及 的是一个词与另一个词共现或搭配构 成该词的部分意义的可能性, 而且语 境也涉及某一特定话语之前和之后的 语境部分.11

For example, “black” in black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation. The seal could not be found.

Behaviorism (行为主义论)

Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.

在特定情境下,说话人的话语在听话人身 上引起的反应.

The story of Jack and Jill: Jill Jack S_________r--------s_________R 13

Lexical meaning 词汇意义Sense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning. 意义和指称是在词义研究中经常遇到的两 个术语. 它们是意义的两个相关但不相 同的方面.

Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. 意义指的是语言形式的内在意义. 它 是语言形式所有特征的集合, 是抽象 的, 而且与语境无关, 是词典编纂者 所感兴趣的方面. 15

Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 指称意指语言形式在现实的物质世界 中所指的事物; 它涉及的是语言成分 和非语言的经验世界之间的关系.