Chinese Script --- From Oracle Bones to Computer Bytes

Introduction

The birth of a written language marks the dawn of human civilization.

The invention of Chinese characters represents the wisdom of the Chinese nation.

Welcome to the exhibition of Chinese characters. These intriguing characters, uniquely square in shape, have been used to denote objects and meanings for thousands of years around the globe. It is one of the oldest written languages in the world and the only ancient language still in use today -- the Chinese characters, the mother and the carrier of the Chinese civilization, bond among all Chinese, and the bridge between China and other nations.

The inscription of Chinese characters on oracle bones has left a precious legacy and propelled civilization. Today, the integration of Chinese characters with computer bytes will further promote this process and lead to new advances for humanity.

Chinese Characters: Awaiting Your Exploration.

Unit 1. Origins of Chinese Characters

It all started with a myth.

(Picture of Cangjie writing Chinese characters.) Legend has it that Cangjie, a historian-official who lived in the time of Huangdi (the Yellow Emperor), created Chinese characters at the inspiration of such natural objects as the sun, the moon, the stars, and footprints of animals and birds.

The story of Cangjie’s single-handed creation of Chinese characters may not be entirely accurate, yet historical records and archeological finds reveal that he might, in fact, have been the first person to study and index the Chinese characters. (A portrait of Cangjie.)

The legendary character-making Altar of Cangjie in Shaanxi.

Characters allegedly invented by Cangjie (in Chunhua Pavilion Model)

Secrets Discovered in Medicine

In 1899, Chinese scholar Wang Yirong discovered from ―dragon bones‖---an ingredient of traditional Chinese medicine---some peculiar symbols. The symbols were Jiaguwen, or script written on oracle bones, and these particular bones were found to date back 3,000 years.

Wang Yirong.

Jiaguwen, knife-carved inscriptions on tortoise shells and animal bones, are the oldest known Chinese language today.

The Yin ruins at Xiaotui Village of Anyang County, Henan Province (left), was once the capital of China’s Shang dynasty (16th-11th centuries B.C.). The world-renowned Jiaguwen were buried beneath this land for over 3,000 years (right).

Jiaguwen, oracle bone scripts (replica)

Inscribed oracle bones once used as medicine.

Back to the Roots

(Picture of ancient Chinese communicating in spoken language.)

Was there any other language before the oracle bone scripts? Actually, the Chinese communicated with several forms of oral language in the pre-script ages. Meanwhile, to overcome the communication problems inherent in oral language, many other systems of various symbols were invented to allow people to ―talk‖.

Bagua (Eight Diagrams): Eight patterns derived from different combinations of ―＿‖ and ―- -‖, referred to different objects. This ancient system was later used solely for divination.

Knot making: Like many other nations, the ancient Chinese once used different string-knots to indicate numbers or commonplace matters. The modern-day counterpart of the ―Chinese knot‖ evolved from these ancient creations.

Carved symbols: Cracks or symbols carved on bamboo or wood pieces, denoting numbers or important events.

Readable Pictures

Before written language came into being, primitive man often used pictures to record events and share information. (A Neolithic cave painting in Yunnan.)

Neolithic cave painting of the Jiangjun Cliff in Jiangsu.

Heishan cave painting.

Picture on a Neolithic ceramic jug.

As these pictures grew simpler in form, and took on certain meaning and pronunciation, they

became pictographs. This is a living pictograph of China -- Dongba Scripts in Naxi language

Cuneiform, (Egyptian) hieroglyphics, inscriptions of ancient Indian, and oracle bone scripts

Pictograph is the common origin of all human language. Look at these ancient written languages, and you’ll find they are all pictographic.

Primitive Chinese Characters?

Are these symbols the primitive Chinese script?

Carved symbol of ―日‖ (sun), discovered at the Neolithic remains of Jiahu (c. 7,000-8,000 years ago)

Carved symbols on pottery, from the Neolithic remains of Banpo (c. 5,000-7,000 years ago)

Carved symbols on pottery, from the Neolithic remains of Majiayao (c. 4,000-5,000 years ago)

Carved characters on pottery, from the Dawenkou remains of Shandong (c. 4,500 years ago). These characters are both hieroglyphic and pictophonetic.

Carved symbols on pottery, from the remains of the Xia dynasty (c. 21st -16th century B.C.)

Where is the oldest Chinese script? It’s a mystery waiting to be solved -- possibly by you.

Carved symbols on pottery (replica of Dawenkou objects)

Unit 2. Structure of Chinese Characters

How is Chinese Characters formed?

―字‖ (character): The upper part ―宀‖ means house (roof), the lower part ―子‖ means children. ―Children in house‖ originally meant giving birth to children, and evolved to mean reproduction in general. The character ―字‖ now refers to word derivation.

How is Chinese script formed? There are six areas of morphology, according to Shuo Wen Jie Zi (Analytical Dictionary of Script) written by scholar Xu Shen of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 A.D.).

A portrait of Xu Shen.

Shuo Wen Jie Zi ---the first complete dictionary of Chinese script.

Liu Shu---Six types of Chinese morphology.

The composition of Chinese characters is unique and interesting. The six types of morphology summarized by Xu Shen are very helpful for learning about Chinese script.

Hieroglyphic Characters

The hieroglyph depicts the shape of objects line for line, just like photographs. It is the oldest and most exact type of morphology, and the easiest to understand.

This is the character for ―human‖ in oracle bone script. Doesn’t it resemble this picture?

This is a human with his arms and legs wide stretched, as if saying, ―Look how big I am!‖ This character also means ―big‖.

This is a bronze tomahawk on which is the carved figure of a human face. Its teeth resemble the character ―teeth‖ of the oracle bone script, don’t they?

A picture of rain, encapsulated in an oracle bone character.

The left character“女”means ―woman,‖ reflecting a kneeling woman with her hands crossed. Note the low social status for women in ancient China. When two points (breasts) are added, it becomes “母”, or ―mother‖.

The goat head in this picture comes from the ―Four-goat Bronze Vessel‖ dating back to the time of the oracle bones. The picture looks exactly the same as the character for ―goat‖.

On the left is a bronze knife of the Shang Dynasty; the right character mirrors its shape vividly.

Doesn’t this character look like the mountain in the picture? Yes, it means ―mountain,‖ too.

Indicative characters

Indicatives are characters denoting parts of objects, or abstract ideas.

The left is the hieroglyph for ―knife,‖ so how to indicate ―knife-edge‖? A dot on the original character will do (right).

The above is the oracle bone character for ―wood‖. When three circles are added at the bottom, it becomes ―roots‖.

How were abstract concepts such as ―up‖ and ―down‖ expressed? The Chinese used short bars over or under a longer bar for this representation.

Associative Compounds

An associative compound is the composition of two or more symbols or script into a new character.

“信”(trust) is composed of ―イ‖ (human) and“言”(word), meaning ―man must be true to his words‖.

This is“休”(rest), a human figure (イ) resting against a tree (木).

Seal character for ―compare‖ (比). Two persons standing side by side, as if comparing their height.

This is the inscribed character for ―look‖ (见), stressed by the extraordinarily wide eye.

A ―small‖ (小) above and a ―big‖ (大) below make a ―sharp‖ (尖) contrast.

What will happen when the ―Sun‖ (日)and the ―Moon‖ (月) meet? The sky will be extremely ―bright‖ (明) .

Phonetic Compounds

A phonetic compound is character made of both phonetic and ideographic side radicals. Most Chinese characters are formed this way because it meets the general need for word creation.

In the oracle bone script, the character ―chicken‖ was a pictograph. Later, a phonetic side radical was added to signify the pronunciation.

The proportion of phonetic compounds to all Chinese characters had risen from 20 percent at the time of oracle bones to 90 percent, as included in the Kangxi Dictionary published in the Qing Dynasty. This is a picture of the famous Kangxi Dictionary.

The above table shows the relation between ideographic side radicals (wood, water, metal) and the meaning of the characters.

―Life in the Chinese Primitive Society‖, a picture composed of ―side radicals‖ of Chinese

characters.

In Chinese dictionaries, characters are indexed according to their ideographic elements. These elements are called side radicals. Most side radicals are actually the first characters to be created. This picture explains how our primitive ancestors lived together with their basic creations.

Unit 3. Evolution of Chinese Characters

Appearance of Early Chinese Characters

The oldest known Chinese characters were found on this 3,000-year-old oracle bone inscription. The strokes are generally thin, like children’s sketches, and the size varies.

Oracle bone inscription in the Western Zhou Dynasty (11th century -771 B.C). The letters are so small that they can be read only under a magnifying glass.

Another primitive Chinese script contemporary with the oracle bones was Jinwen (inscribed script). These characters were generally inscribed on bronze ware, with thicker strokes and more regular sizes. This is a rubbing of the Inscription on Dayu Ding (tripod).

Oracle bone script of the Shang Dynasty (replica)

Oracle bone script of the Western Zhou Dynasty (replica)

Western Zhou oracle bone script (11th century -- 771 B.C.), readable only through a magnifying glass.

Shiqiang Plate, a bronze ware of the Western Zhou Dynasty (replica)

Archaic Codes: Script of the Warring States Period.

During the Warring States Period (475—221 B.C.), China was divided into seven fiefdoms. They differed from each other in all aspects, from politics to language. The Warring States script is very difficult to decipher.

Bamboo-shaped brass pass, owned by E’junqi of the Chu State.

Brass wine vessel inlaid with gold, from the Jin State.

Currency with Zhao characters.

Currency with Wei characters.

Currency with Han characters.

Stone drum inscribed with Dazhuan (big seal) letters from the Qin State.

Warring States currencies inscribed with various scripts.

Towards One Chinese Characters

After unifying China in 221 B.C., Emperor Qin ushered in many reforms, including the standardization of language. A uniform Chinese language facilitated the integration of Chinese cultures, catalyzed China’s economic and cultural exchanges, and enhanced social productivity. (Portrait of Emperor Qin.)

Qin’s Prime Minister Li Si simplified the original Dazhuan (big seal) script of Qin and invented a standard system of writing for the whole China -- Xiaozhuan (small seal). With standardized shape, strokes and structure, this script established the basic formation for all Chinese characters created since. Li Si’s Stone Inscription on the Yi Mountain.

LI Si’s Stone Inscription on the Tai Mountain. (rubbings)

A decree to standardize measures, written in small seal script, Qin Dynasty.

Bronze scale inscribed with small seal script, Qin Dynasty

Tiger-shaped tally inscribed with small seal script, Qin Dynasty

Brick with 12 small seal letters, Qin Dynasty (replica)

Lishu (Clerical Script): Revolution of Convenience

Clerical script, a kind of handwriting much faster and easier than the small seal, was first used among the common people, and later seen in official documents. After being standardized by Cheng Miao and other officials, it was decreed by Emperor Qin to be the vernacular written characters of the nation. This is a set of bamboo slips written in Qin clerical script, from Yunmeng, Hubei.

In the Han dynasty (206 B.C.-220 A.D.), clerical script developed greatly. Simpler and more regular in shape, it established the basic structure of most Chinese characters. Clerical script stands as the dividing point between archaic and modern Chinese script. Bamboo slips written in Qin clerical script, from Yunmeng, Hubei. (replica)

Kaishu (Standard Script): Model Writings

At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-200), a new form of handwriting, standard script, came into being. The initiator of standard characters was Zhong Yao.

Straight in line, square in shape, and very easy to write, this kind of characters is regarded as standard characters, as it can be used as a model for other forms of writing. It remains the standard written characters of Chinese today. Zhong Yao’s Xuanshi Proclamation.

Liu Gongquan’s Xuanmi Pagoda Inscription.

Ouyang Xun’s Jiuchenggong Liquan Inscription. (Copybook)

Caoshu (Cursive) and Xingshu (Semi-cursive): Writings on the Run.

Caoshu and Xingshu scripts were two easy-to-write forms invented for greater efficiency.

Caoshu script has three categories: Zhangcao, Jincao and Kuangcao. Wood slips written in Zhangcao script.

Jincao (modern cursive script) was initiated by Zhang Zhi. His calligraphy is also called ―one-stroke writing‖ for its fast movement and continuity.

Kuangcao (―crazy cursive script‖) was invented by Zhang Xu. As the characters are written too speedily to be recognizable, this kind of writing is valued mostly for aesthetic reasons. A Qing portrait of Zhang Xu at his writing.

Xingshu (semi-cursive, or ―running script‖) came into vogue during the Wei and Jin Periods (220-420). It combined practical use with aesthetic value. Portrait of Wang Xizhi, the great Jin calligrapher, famed for his semi-cursive writing.

―Orchid Pavilion Steles‖ of Zhejiang, China, where the Wang Xizhi, the Jin calligraphist, created his masterpiece Lan Ting Ji Xu (Preface to the Orchid Pavilion Collections), the greatest known example of semi-cursive Chinese calligraphy.

Tang Dynasty copy of Lan Ting Ji Xu.

Diagram of the evolution of Chinese scripts.

Unit 4. The Writing of Chinese Scripts.

Medium.

The ―writing‖ of Chinese characters first requires a medium. As today’s writings are mostly on paper, one may wonder: What came before that?

In the Shang Dynasty (c. 17th –11th c.), letters were carved on oracle bones or bronze wares. The Maogong Ding (tripod) bears the earliest known text of that time.

Spring and Autumn Period (770—256 B.C.) was a time when the amount of writings and characters increased in great number. Hence the emergence of new mediums. Houma Covenant written on jade and stone pieces, Spring and Autumn Period.

Silk was used by aristocrats for writing. Recipes for 52 Kinds of Disorders, silk writing unearthed from a Han tomb.

Scripts on steles: Langya Inscription of the Qin Dynasty.

Slips of bamboo and wood are the most commonly used material for writing. Bamboo slips of Chu, Warring States.

Wooden tablet with maps, from Qin tombs, Gansu Province.

Documents on Xia, Shang and Zhou Bronze Collections, by Luo Zhenyu.

Houma Covenant (replica)

Writing Instruments.

Knives were first used as carving tools in the early phases of Chinese script. With the emergence of other specialized tools like brushes, knives began to serve as ―erasers‖ to scratch off mistakes. Frog-shaped carving knife, Shang Dynasty.

Brushes, invented and used since time immemorial, became the major writing instrument of Chinese characters in the Spring and Autumn (770 – 256 B.C.). As the brush hair is made of soft animal fur, this instrument is very flexible and adaptive. Brushes of the Warring States and modern brushes.

The inkstone and inkstick are two other indispensable tools. When the inkstone is filled with water, it is used as a base to grind solid inksticks into liquid ink. Inkstones are usually made of stone or bricks. Mountain-shaped pottery inkstone of the Han Dynasty (206 B.C. –220 A.D.)

Inkstone, the Three Kingdoms Period (220-280)

―Wenfu Inkstick‖, Tang Dynasty.

―Qinquan Inkstick‖ and ―Globe Inkstick‖, 19th century.

Brush, inkstick, instone and paper, called the ―Four Treasures of the Study‖, are the key instruments for writing Chinese characters. ―Four Treasures of the Study‖ used by the Chinese emperor.

One brush can make various kinds of strokes, from thick to slim. Would you like to try it?

The Art of Writing: Chinese Calligraphy

Chinese calligraphy is an art of self-cultivation and self-expression. It reflects the mindset and mood of the writer, and fully embodies the unique beauty of Chinese script. Today, Chinese calligraphy is enjoyed by people throughout the world.

The modernization of writing tools has given rise to many types of calligraphy other than the traditional brush-writings. A piece of pen-and-ink calligraphy. Some contemporary western artists also assimilated Chinese calligraphy into abstract art, yielding many excellent works. Work of Antoni Tapies.

Knife-carved Scripts: Seal Cutting

Seal cutting is, in other words, ―writing‖ with knives on materials like stone, wood and metal. It is traditional graphic/calligraphic/engraving art of China. Shang seals from 3,000 years ago.

Before the invention of paper, official documents were written on bamboo or wooden slips and sealed with clay. A lettered seal was then stamped on the clay envelope. ―Qigongsi Letter‖ seal of the Han Dynasty.

Bronze seal ―Laoyang Cashier‖, Warring States.

Before the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), seals were generally made for practical uses such as identification. The Empress’ Seal of the Han Dynasty.

Since the Ming Dynasty, calligraphers and painters have begun to treat seals as artistic creations. Through deliberate choice of material and application of cutting and arranging, the inch-long seals became genuine art of interest. An artist’s seal.

Writing or Painting?

Scripts on Wadang (tile decorations).

What are these patterns on this bronze pot of Western Han Dynasty? A kind of descriptive writing named ―Niaozhuanwen‖ (bird seal letter).

Embroidered shoes decorated with characters, from tombs of the Eastern Jin Dynasty (317-420).

Arm shield embroidered with the words ―Five stars in the east benefit China‖. Jin Dynasty (265-420).

Papercuts based on Chinese characters.

―美‖ (beauty) best describes this dress.

Because the character “王” (king) reminds one of a tiger’s forehead, the Chinese people regard the tiger as the ―king‖ of the beasts. The pattern is particularly prominent on folk crafts.

Descriptive writing (locally called ―bird and flower character‖) by folk artists.

Painted calligraphy or written painting?

“寿”(longevity) embroidered with flower patterns, Qing Dynasty (1616-1911).

Woven characters: ―Five-petal Plum Blossom‖. Qing Dynasty.

Auspicious words ―More wealth, more fortune‖.

Style Marks the Man.

Characters are like cardiograms: A piece of handwriting often reveals the character and temperament of the writer.

Yan Zhenqing and Zhao Mengfu were both great calligraphers of ancient China. The straightforward honesty of Yan and the clever adaptability of Zhao so obvious in their calligraphy well reflected their personalities.

Emperor Huizong of Song and Emperor Qianlong of Qing led drastically different lives. While Huizong’s misfortune permeates his sparse, embittered writing style, Qianlong’s work overflows with richness and content.

Unit 5. Other Benefits of Chinese Characters

Chinese Characters and Papermaking

Before the invention of paper, most Chinese scripts were written on heavy bamboo or wooden slips. Today’s bagful of books would be equal to five big carts loaded with slips at that time. The development of language called for new medium for writing.

In 105 A.D., drawing on previous practices from others before him, Cai Lun invented paper by using tree bark, hemp, and pieces of cloth. From then on, paper has been the most important writing medium in China. Portrait of Cai Lun.

Records about Cai Lun’s papermaking in Hou Han Shu (the Later Han Books)

Flow chart of papermaking.

Map of the spread of papermaking skills to other regions.

The transmission of paper to other places soon triggered enormous changes around the world, accelerating the civilization of mankind.

Raw material for papermaking.

Chinese Characters and Printing.

Before printing was invented.

Before printing was invented, all books were copied by hand, which was time-consuming and vulnerable to mistakes. Manuscripts from Dunhuang Grottoes.

Copier figures of Jin (265-420). Ancient Chinese worked in pairs to copy books, one to copy and one to proofread.

Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, stele inscriptions were widely used to publicize authoritative characters and classic books. An inscribed scripture in three styles of writing.

Tang scripts sheltered in the Stele Forest of Xi’an.

The spread of stele inscriptions soon led to another invention: ink rubbings. This was done by placing wet paper on the stele, and then applying ink on the paper so that the inverse characters could stand out. A forerunner of block printing, this ancient technique provides copies true to the original. It is still widely used today.

Remains of Xiping Stone Scripts, Eastern Han Dynasty (replica)

Block Printing.

As one of the four greatest inventions of ancient China, block printing came into being 1,300 years ago. This is the oldest printed work of China that can be dated: Diamond Sutra , Tang Dynasty (868).

In the Song Dynasty (960--1279), inscribers of printing blocks were often calligraphers. Books printed at this time appealed not only to the mind, but to the aesthetic sense as well. A book printed in the Song Dynasty.

A letterform created specially for block printing: the Song style. Its inventors are unknown, but its advantages are obvious. This letterform is still the major book letter used today. A book printed in Song style.

Other techniques like overprinting, multicolor overprinting and embossing were invented one after another, constantly pushing block printing to new levels.

Type printing.

Around 1041--1048, Bi Sheng, a commoner in the Song Dynasty, invented type printing based on the principle of seals. Records on the invention of type printing by Bi Sheng in Meng Xi Bi Tan (Note of SHEN kuo)

Portrait of Bi Sheng.

Process of clay-type printing.

How to make the printing type: mold some small clay pieces, stamp letters on them, bake until hard, and then arrange them in an iron case.

Around 1295—1300, Wang Zhen invented wooden type printing, and a Chinese-friendly type arranging system with evolving cases. Portrait of Wang Zhen.

Various forms of metal type were also invented afterwards, enriching printing technologies immensely.

Wang Zhen’s type-case (model)

Bi Sheng’s clay types (replica)

Chinese Characters and Unity of China.

The standardization of Chinese script has helped promote the economic, cultural exchange and development within China, thus enhancing the overall power of the nation. This is a partial rubbing of Aotun Liangbi Banquet Stele, a bilingual stele inscription of Chinese and Nuchen (ancestors of the Manchu).

Like the culture itself, the scripts of the Chinese have long interacted with other ethnic groups, thus speeding up the unity of the Chinese nation. Qing palace tablets in Manchu and Chinese.

Porcelain bottles with Chinese and Xixia scripts.

A golden seal with Chinese, Manchu and Tibetan, issued by the Qing government to Dalai Lama.

Rubbings from Mogao Grottoes, with six scripts including Chinese, Mongolian, Tibetan and Manchu (Yuan Dynasty).

Imperial seal with Chinese and Manchu scripts, Qing Dynasty.

Two-sided Jin scripture, in Chinese and Huihu (ancient Uygur) scripts.

Bilingual book in Chinese and Phags-pa (a branch of Mongolian) scripts.

Buddhist scriptures written by Yong Rong in Chinese and Manchu scripts (Qing Dynasty).

Chinese Characters and Chinese Books.

Characters are the basic elements of books in Chinese. They not only reveal the stories within, but also affect how the books will look.

The Chinese characters have a life beyond time and place. A moderately educated Chinese today can easily understand a Chinese book written thousands of years ago. Youngsters reading ancient books in the library.

Chinese books with both horizontal and vertical writing.

Chinese books with both horizontal and vertical printing.

Chinese books, left-bound and right-bound.

Chinese books in diverse forms (stringed slips, scroll, folded, sewn)

Chinese Characters and Intelligence

An experiment was carried out by American scientists in 1971 on eight students with reading difficulties. After learning the English pronunciations of 30 Chinese characters, the children easily recognized and memorized the characters. Research shows that Chinese characters can stimulate both right-brain and left-brain thinking.

Experiment results published in Science in 1971.

Unit 6. Chinese script and computers

The birth of the computer in the mid-20th century ushered in an information age for the world. As the computer’s basic calculation system is binary, some hold that its inventor, Leibniz, was inspired by the Chinese Eight Diagrams. Portrait of Leibniz.

The input of Chinese can be faster than that of English, thanks to the unique function of the Chinese system to find relevant words quickly.

Major Chinese input systems.

The first Chinese typesetting system, FOUNDER, shifted the Chinese printing from an era of molten lead and fire to one of light and electricity.

Computers can make Chinese characters beautiful, too.

The computer is making the learning and usage of Chinese characters. Click away and we can write perfectly shaped characters now.

The vast multitude of Chinese books are now stored in digital libraries. Computer science has enabled cultures based in Chinese to spread on an unprecedented scale.

Reading from the Web.

The scientific and artistic aspects of Chinese script are now getting more and more attention globally. As new trends of voice-control technologies emerge, the advantages of Chinese will be more prominent. On the Internet, various messages in Chinese are transmitted in seconds, changing the world day by day.

In early 20th century, the Chinese character writing entered into a brand new era of machinery, thanks to the invention of the Chinese typewriters.