中国区域旅游发展

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J.Jackson/TourismManagement27(2006)695–706

millionpersonsto20.2million(ChinaNationalTourismOrganization(CNTO)).Thenumberofdomestictouristsincreasedfrom639millionin1996toover878millionin2002(CNTO).Thequalityofdomesticdemandisenhancedbyanincreasingsophisticationassociatedwithwideningexperienceofinternationaldestinations.

Asindicatedearlier,internationaldemandfortourismtoChinahasalsoincreasedsubstantiallysincetheopennessandreformpolicyin1978,underpinnedbyfactorupgradinginresponsetothegrowingsophisticationofdomesticdemand.In2002,Chinaranked fthintheworldasatourismdestination,upfrom34thin1980(CNTO,WorldTourismOrganization gures).

4.1.3.Relatedandsupportingindustries

Acrossthe12provinces,thepresenceofrelatedandsupportingindustriesvaries.However,ingeneraltheyarewellendowedwithaheterogeneousrangeincludingaccommodation,foodandbeverageoutlets,man-madeandnaturalattractions,festivals,agriculturalandhorticulturalenterprises,transportandtourorganizers,handcraftsandsouvenirsplusarangeofserviceindustriestosupportthesetourism-relatedbusinesses.MajoruniversitiesinSichuanandYunnanofferprogramsintourismandhospitality.

Atamicro-level,however,thelinkagesbetweentheseorganisationsarequiteweakaswillbediscussedintheresultsoftheprimarydatacollection.

4.1.4.Contextfor rmstructureandstrategy

Fromthebeginningofthe‘GreatLeapForward’in1958privatelyownedSMEswerelargelytransformedintocollectives,manyofwhichwerethentransferredintostateownership.WhiletherehasbeenamovementtowardsamoremarketdrivensystemfortourisminChinasince1978,manyofthetourismbusinessesarestillownedbythestateorlargenationalorinternationalcompanies.Therearestillnolargenumbersofsmalltomediumenterprises(SMEs)thatareprivatelyowned,rgertourismbusinessesinwestChinaarealsostillpredominantlystateowned.Forexample,ofthe2043touristhotelsofalltypesinthe‘WestDevelopment’regionsin2002,fewerthan6%wereprivatelyowned,whilearound10%werecollec-tivelyownedandover62%werestateowned(ChinaStatisticalYearbook2003,p.693).

ThereisnoreadilyavailabledataonownershipofSMEs;however,anindicationofownershippatternscanbegleanedfromsecondarydataforotherindustrygroups.Forallindustrygroupswithabove5millionYuanannualturnoverintheseprovinces,therateofprivateownershipisbelow6%,whilestateownershipisover42%.Thiscomparestolessthan20%state

ownershipintheeasternprovincesofChinawhichhaveasigni cantlyhigherproportionofinternationallyownedbusinessesthanthewesternprovinces.BothsidesofChinamaintainabout15%collectivelyownedenterprises(ChinaStatisticalYearbook2003,pp.461–464).

Withcollectivesbeingahistoricallyacceptedorganisa-tionalforminChina,itispossiblethatthereissomeconsonanceofbusinessclusterswiththemodelsoflocalcollectiveswhichmaybeexploitedwithinthe‘socialistmarketsystem’thathasevolvedinChina’stourismindustryinrecentyears(Zhangetal.,1999,p.480).Xu(1999,p.218)alsoarguesforbroadeningtheconceptofthetourismindustrysystem‘toestablisharticulationsbetweentourismandtourism-relatedsectors’,indicatingsupportforcluster-likedevelopmentatatheoreticallevel.

4.1.5.TheroleofgovernmentincreatingthecontextReducedrelianceongovernmentsubsidisationisacornerstoneofbusinessclustertheory.In1998,PremierZhuannouncedcutbacksinsubsidisationofunpro ta-bleenterprises,whichincreasesthemotivationforself-relianceinlocaltourismenterprises.Further,withtheemergenceofthesocialistmarketmodelinthetourismindustryinChina(Zhangetal.,1999)andthedevelopmentofsmallcollectiveorprivateenterprisesthatareoutsidestateplans,nurturingthenecessarysharedunderstandingofthecompetitivebusinessethicmaybepossible.Hencetherecouldbeacombinationofcompetitionandcooperationinproducinga exibleentrepreneurialattitudetomarketforces.

AttheForumonChina’sTourism,arecurringthemefrompresenters,inassessingthemovetowardsamarketeconomy,wastheresistancetochangebysomegovernmentof cialswhoarestillarguingforamajorroleforgovernmentintourismactivity.However,academicsandindustryleadersarguedforlessinter-ferenceinthemarket,signifyingasophisticatedunder-standingofthepossiblerolesforcentralgovernmentinamorecompetitivemarketmodel.‘Theroleofgovernmenthasnotbeenenhancedorclari ed.Forinstance,thereisstrongparochialismandthegovern-mentisweakinadjustingthesituation.Besides,notonlythetourismindustrybutalsothegovernmentshouldbemarketoriented.Ithasbeensaidthattourismisthemajorindustryundergovernmentdirection.Yetitisnotclearwhatspeci careasthegovernmentshoulddirect’(Fu&Wu,2001,p.12).

Inadditiontotherolesofgovernmentidenti edbyPorter(1990)mentionedearlierinthispaper,Xu(1999,p.219)viewsanappropriateroleas,apartfromstart-up nancialandtechnicalassistanceandincentivelegislation,itiscrucialthattheyfoster‘inter-regionalcooperationandsounddivisionofdemandmarkets’.